Leslie Dewart, George Tyrrell, Alfred Adler and other essays
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Leslie Dewart, George Tyrrell, Alfred Adler and other essays
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Leslie Dewart, George Tyrrell, Alfred Adler and other essays
(Click on the icon below to return to my main website.)
LESLIE DEWART: RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHER
(1922-2009)
1st Book: CHRISTIANITY AND REVOLUTION: The Lesson of Cuba (1963)
Within the first 30 pages of this book my memory has taken me back to my university days when Leslie Dewart taught me at St Michael's College, U. of T. I recall Dr. Dewart's first wife, Joanne McWilliam (who was also teaching at U. of T. at the time) warning me that Leslie's works are all difficult and demanding reading. How true. In reading these pages I am reminded that Christianity is an existential life-style or political philosophy, before it is an issue of belief or unbelief about God's incarnation in Jesus of Nazareth. Being a moral force places Christianity in a particular relationship with the politics in the world. Thus, as I was reminded, Christian political philosophy acts a means to human ends. [Religious and secular ends are to be distinguished.]
Much of the content of this book focuses on Fidel Castro's character and personality as Dewart sees it. For this I am grateful since I was young and more interested in ideological issues than personal ones when I was introduced to this book. The Communist Party initially did not consider Castro a Communist, even though he allowed the Party freedom and opportunity to promote its ideology. Eventually, as it turned out, Castro adopted Communism of his own free choice, as Dewart explains, so as to combat the disordered and civic immorality of the Cuban culture he inherited. (His character might not have allowed him to do otherwise, Dewart suggests since the issue revolves around Castro's psychological processes and inner dialogue.)
I was taught not to mix religion and politics growing up in an increasingly secular age. But, in the Cuba of the revolution, religion or better the Church, played a singularly important role in bringing about the revolution - but not for the reasons we may presume given our lack of history of Cuban history of the culture and the Church, he suggests. I believe he was correct after reading the causes he advances. (Ultimately, the Catholic Hierarchy and the Catholic Faithful will constitute a “house divided” between the traditional conformist attitude and the new non-conformist attitude that was developing.)
Deeper into the book and into Dewart’s insightful way of thinking, it becomes clear that Church and State relations in Cuba ultimately deteriorated and the problem, as Dewart saw it, was an ecclesiastical one. I cannot disagree. The notion of “ecclesial,” however, as advanced by Vatican II was not, as yet, in the minds of the authorities or the faithful either, for that matter. Politically, Cuba was beginning to emerge from a medieval understanding of life and the Church was in danger of failing the people spiritually given its adherence to a nostalgic past. In the 1960’s the end of the classical spiritual age was approaching in Cuba, and I agree with Dewart that in Cuba's experience lies a lesson for our time, as our governing institutions become politically obsolete.
That there is “more world in the Church, than Church in the world,” as many see it today, is a corruption and betrayal of the Christians' desire: “We do not want the world to embrace the Church; we want the Church to embrace the world.” To my mind, and to which Dewart alludes is that Christian theology needs to address the nature of the Church in humanity's fallen state, and responsibly rule itself politically and spirituality. However, the Church lives its fallen state, no longer in a classical world, but in a world beginning to “dehellenize” itself, as the lesson of Cuba demonstrates. How we view God in a dehellenized culture will next concern Dewart, (and should concern any serious theologian, for that matter), as an existential reality in our future of belief.
2nd Book: The Future of Belief: Theism in a World Come of Age (1966)
As an undergraduate in 1970 I was warned that is book was a difficult read. It was true them and is true today. Dewart does not engage in any "pop" presentation of ideas but rather leads the reader on a rigorously exciting examination of an evolution in critical thinking. Dewart intends this book for those interested in "the problem of integrating Christian theistic belief with the everyday experience of contemporary man" (p. 7) He is concerned mainly with the problem of everyday experience as understood within the Roman Catholic perspective at the time of the Second Vatican Council. The context in which Dewart writes revels the issues and passions of the day. This is not a limitation. Although, not intended as a book on pastoral theology, I recommend that the last chapter be read as such. "The Development of Christian Theism" has insights on self- conscious development of the Christian understanding of God that should be of interest to any critically thinking pastor of our day and age. Our conception of God is challenged by secular thought which fails to appreciate the Hellenistic background to much doctrine and dogma. Dewart has presented, from tis reviewer's perspective, an excellent academic understanding of the problem. He is able to help one to think one's way out of that Hellenistic cultural setting and remain faithful to the truth it has expressed. Not to be overlooked are the copious footnotes in the text which indicate the seriousness and depth of Dewart's thinking. They are of exceptional use in helping the contemporary individual in understanding the evolutionary characteristic of interpretive thought. Further, these notes provide provide a much-needed corrective to the misunderstood and misrepresented classical ideas of antiquity often encountered in popular religious books. I would not recommend the book for the average reader, nor the lazy reader. In fact, this is a painful book, not so much to be read, but to be put into practice. It calls the reader to a future self-confidence based on a conscious self-conscious awareness of who we are and what we have the ability to become. Understanding Vatican II as a Christian watershed, Dewart writes: "We now stand on a very uncertain terrain. We are justified in exploring it solely for the attempt's possible heuristic value" (p. 173).
3rd Book: The Foundations of Belief (1969)
I begin again the challenge of reading Dewart’s very detailed book on religious foundation — hoping to savour again details I have long forgotten. Do reality and truth evolve? Will Christianity direct its own evolution into the future, or be directed by another agency? Such specialized questions still capture my interest. What is coming back to me, at this initial re-reading, is the possibility that dehellenization has opened Christianity to the notions reality and truth contained in the “higher religions” of the Far East, possibly, in part, as a result of our understanding of the “global village.”
I sense, within this reading, that western religion has entered a DIY age. The Do-It-Yourself approach arises from humanity’s ability for self-directed evolution. Not only what has changed, but also what has not yet changed, concerns Dewart in this book, that is, what it means for a religion to be “revealed.” Can the traditional understanding of Revelation remain as contemporary thought presents it?
(Being at a somewhat familiar stage in the book, that is, the Hellenic understanding of knowledge and fate, and their influence upon Christian theology, I have been reminded of a book on my library shelf, acquired years back but which I never read. So, I decided to interrupt my reading of Dewart for the moment and focus on Dickinson’s, The Greek View of Life. My digression into this book was not what I expected. But reading it did help in appreciating the Greek mind expressed by the so-called pre-Socratic philosophers and those whose understanding came after Socrates. Reflecting the academic understanding of his time, the Dickinson cites “harmony” as the over-riding intent of the Hellenic thinkers, even if they reserved this harmony to the aristocrats of the time. Only, later, he maintains was this harmony undermined by the dichotomous philosophy that appeared in Greek classical times. It was good to be reminded that the “dislocation of the spirit which opposed the body to the soul, heaven to earth, the church to the state, the man of the world to the priest, was alien to the normal consciousness of the Greeks” (p.252). The implication being that the problems which occupy us today originated with Greek philosophy, not Greek poetry.)
I am more convinced than ever of Dewart's suggestion that redeveloping Christian belief cannot rest on the inherited philosophical principles as they presently stand. If I have understood him correctly, thus far, the notions of “necessity” and “fate,” as inherited, must be replaced by the notion of “contingency,” as it applies to understanding God and truth itself. Christian belief must become conscious of its own future and cease unconsciously accepting its present state in contemporary culture.
It is always a challenge to read Dewart and follow the discussion on the points he makes. The philosophical intellect of the Christian does not need enlightening by faith, he maintains, when it comes to recognizing the contingency of beings. (This understanding may have earned him a reputation of being an atheist to the minds of some.)
Elsewhere, I have written of our status as co-creator in this life. My notion stems from Dewart’s words: “When Christian philosophers begin to tell people, as St Thomas did, that they exist in their own right, and give then the premises from which they will in time deduce that they, too, are creators, and that they have a decisive role to play -- for better or for worse -- in the shaping of themselves, and that it is better to have creatively attempted something and failed than never to have created anything at all, one has to expect that some people -- perhaps even most people for a while -- will not know just what to do with their discovery and will not quite manage themselves well” (206).
I end my comments on this book. Those interested can obtain a copy of the book and read for themselves what he has to say about; reality transcending being, God being understood as “subsistent Relativity,” belief in the church, and understanding our experience as a participation in reality and not a reduplication of it -- as the Hellenists would have it.
4th Book: Religion, Language, and Truth (1970)
This book partially fulfills a request made to Dewart to write a more popular version of his views. It has to do with philosophy's contribution to the “contemporary crisis of man,” as Western thinkers become more aware of their human evolving nature. This has been my experience. The philosophical crisis of reality and truth is a religious crisis as well. This book provided a very helpful review of Dewart's perspective as I examined his notion of dehellenization as it is revealed through Dewart's examination of the phenomenon of speech. I was reminded that speech is first of all what I say and secondarily what you hear. In my experience the two are not always well correlated. My experience continues to confirm, as Dewart suggested, that the Church has no message (speech) from God, but is the message (speech) from God. The distinction is crucial to the development of the religious life.
The book contains an Appendix in which Dewart states his personal belief in this extended quote: “I am disinclined to believe in the hidden power of the immanent divinities which, as Thales thought, all things are full of. Belief in the Christian God implies, so far as I am concerned, a positive disbelief in Fate: necessity be damned, for all I care. I refuse -- let me make the religious nature of this act of un-faith clear, I refuse -- until, if ever, I should be shown otherwise, to believe the primitive superstitions that there are implicit necessities within being, that being has, as its very reality, an inner warrant to command assent, and that invisible predeterminations constitute it and make it definable as that which has an antecedent call on the intellect” (p.162). Personal dehellenization at its best!
He goes on to say that by writing these words he intended to facilitate his own understanding of the world, as well as, the readers' understanding of the world. By that standard he wished the value of his words to be judged.
5th Book: EVOLUTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS: The Role of Speech in the Origin and Development of Human Nature (1989)
It was during my time in Toronto in late November attending the book launch of Dewart's, Hume’s Challenge and the Renewal of Modern Philosophy, that I completed my reading of this book, Evolution and Consciousness. Although, not explicitly discussed, the notion of dehellenization is evident throughout the book. It is presented from a variety of perspectives too numerous to summarize with any degree of accuracy. So, I quote Dewart directly from his prefatory note to this volume to justify my lack of commentary. Dewart writes: “What I have tried to accomplish here...is mainly to arrange a large number of tesserae that, if taken one by one, are very familiar, into a single mosaic of a fairly comprehensive and unconventional philosophical synthesis. I would have liked, therefore, to acknowledge all the sources of stimulation on which I have depended, and to explain how I have turned the contributions of many to my own recusant purposes. To have done so, however, would have raised a cloud of minor distractions....”
6th Book: Hume's Challenge and the Renewal of Modern Philosophy (2016)
Published posthumously and as the title suggests this book has been written for the philosophical community. It is in English and its style is more Gordian than prosaic. This book is published posthumously. It reads as any “work in progress” would with no fully developed structure. And by his admission Dewart has left a number of issues without definitive conclusions. As I understand it, Dewart’s motivation for preparing this book was that other philosophers may want to take up the issues which he writes about and possibly arrive at more satisfactory results. Dewart’s overall purpose for writing this book, as I understand it, reaches back to the roots of his first book, "Christianity and Revolution" Although this is a book on philosophy, astute readers in other disciplines may be able to deepen their understanding of their respective subjects in light of Dewart’s evaluation of the present state of Western philosophy.
Throughout his career, Dewart philosophized with attention to the religious context of his thoughts. (A cursory appreciation of his work might fail to reveal this.) This makes him a religious philosopher, not a theologian. The two are not to be conflated. The theologian probes into the belief required by faith, whereas the philosopher is concerned with the scholarship of religious experience. But, the theologian may “make use” of the philosopher’s scholarship. There are, no doubt, other implications besides theological ones in Dewart’s thought to be discovered from a secular perspective.
According to Dewart, modern philosophy stagnated because of failures, which he tries to correct, of an earlier philosophical age. His attempts at correction are concerned with human sense perception and its truth content as understood within Western philosophy since its origin in ancient Greece. From the point of view of philosophy today, unlike former times, Dewart maintains that “nothing in the world can be seen as a demonstration of God’s work,” understood as a transcendent order of reality (p. 67). That God is irrelevant to contemporary human experience, is a notion he introduced in Christianity and Revolution. Throughout his career, as far as I can make out, Dewart did not advance arguments against the existence of God, but only questioned God’s relevance to the modern secular world.
He viewed the dependence of philosophy on religious concepts as contributing to philosophy’s stagnation. He attempted to free philosophy from dependence on religious concepts through a study of the history of philosophy for its own purposes. He sought to see old problems in a new light. For him, philosophy is to clarify common sense and improve the quality of one’s pre-philosophical experience, and not to develop a different order of knowledge. In order to clarify common sense through philosophy, he focused on experience and understanding the consciousness of the human mind which in turn led him to the cultural question of the contribution of Christianity to philosophy. This question ultimately became the foundation of his “dehellenization” of Western thought, the fruit of which is this book.
In ancient Greek philosophical culture, it was accepted that knowledge was somehow transferred from the object known to the knower, thus overcoming the chasm between the knower and the known. But this dichotomous view no longer serves modern philosophical ends, Dewart believed, and must be abandoned. He suggested that our best option to achieve modern philosophical ends is to understand our existence as a relationship between our conscious self (the knower) and the world of our reality (the known). In this relationship, philosophy does not need to rely on the revealed truths of the Christian religion, nor does philosophy need to discredit the Christian faith, in order to achieve its goals. However, from an historical perspective, he shows that such had been their relationship which over time had the opposite effect; philosophy was crippled and the faith was weakened and neither properly achieved its goals. Philosophy, he noted, was being “theologized” out of existence, and hence was stagnating. As it happened, secularized philosophy came to subscribe to the laws of nature while, at the same time, failing to understand that “the ‘laws of nature’ perform the same service as a God [to philosophy] whose existence need no longer be affirmed, having been rendered superfluous by recognition of the reality of the world” (p. 203, n. 226).
Thus, in this book Dewart has proffered a challenge for modern philosophy to a further demystification of the laws of nature. Modern philosophy needs to focus consciously on cognition, reality and causality to reconstruct the discipline and align it with what one’s experience reveals.
Philosophically, in this book, he maintains that what is wrong with our human nature is not explained by a religious notion of sin, but rather, by one’s diminished ability to empathize with other human beings and with oneself. Dewart called this diminished ability “absent-mindedness.” With the religious notion of sin no longer providing an explanation of reality for philosophy to remedy; the remedy for one’s diminished ability to empathize with other human beings and oneself must be a secular one. Philosophy no longer needs to depend on its religious roots. To my mind, this conclusion is actually an understandable — dare I say predictable — outcome of his earlier investigations, addressed above, in which he sought to dehellenize philosophical understanding. Within my theological point of view, Dewart’s dehellenized philosophy provides useful insights to theologians, who dare to engage it, when undertaking the interpretation of Revelation.
GEORGE TYRRELL: THEOLOGIAN
(1861-1909)
George Tyrrell, a Jesuit priest ultimately expelled from the Society, was a convert who lived from 1861 to 1909. He was of Irish descent and a theologian and scholar associated with the so-called Modernist Movement. His efforts up-dating and adapting Catholic theology within the context of modern ideas made him a controversial figure within the Catholic Church of the late 19th century.
A well-known figure who stayed at the Monastery for a time was Father George Tyrrell. He spent his last years at Storrington, first with the Monks, but soon moving to Mulberry House in the Square, the home of Miss Petre. In the grounds was a hay-store and garden-room which Miss Petre turned into living accommodation for him. Here he continued his controversial writings, and wrote his last work, "Christianity at the Crossroads." This small house has since been enlarged and is now an attractive residence called "Malt Cottage."
Father Tyrrell was born in 1861 in Ireland. He was a Protestant but, influenced by the writings of Cardinal Newman, he was received into the Roman Catholic Communion at the age of 18 and became a Jesuit. He was an able writer and a great thinker; in fact it was aid of him that he was "the finest intellect among English Jesuits since the Reformation." But his fearless modernist views led him into conflict with his Church. In 1906 he was expelled from the Society of Jesus. In the following year he was excommunicated, although he persisted in his adherence to the Church of Rome. He died in 1909, still in communion with Rome. He was buried in Storrington parish churchyard, in a grave which still attracts pilgrims, for it is generally accepted that, far from being mistaken in his outlook and beliefs, he was merely many years in advance of his time.
Father Tyrrell's headstone, and that of Arthur Bell beside it, are examples of the early work of Eric Gill, who became a sculptor and letter-carver of international repute and whose work can be seen in Westminster Cathedral, in Broadcasting House, in the League of Nations Palace at Geneva and in the New Museum at Jerusalem.
ARTHUR F. BELL: Another writer whom old Storrington people remember was Arthur F. Bell. He was born in 1875 and spent most of his life in Sussex. His last years were spent in Storrington at The Studio, Manley's Hill, where he died in November 1918. Owing to an accident when he was a baby, he was crippled all his life, and got about either on crutches or in a bath-chair, or in a little pony-cart. He was a poet and writer, and an artist of some talent. He was a keen lover of nature and of cricket, but his disability barred him from any form of activity. Many of his Sussex poems are contained in "The Dear Land of the Heart," published in 1913. He is buried in Storrington churchyard beside his friend Father Tyrrell.
In the same plot, enclosed by a privet hedge, is a little headstone recording the burial in 1942 of Miss Maude Petre, a great friend of these two men.
(Florence M. Greenfield, Round and About Old Storrington, Littlehampton Printers, 1996.)
George Tyrrell
THE THEOLOGY OF GEORGE TYRRELL:
What he said he said in the Prefaces of his books
Introduction
In the Introduction to her book, Letters from a “Modernist,” Mary Jo Weaver offers advice on how to approach Tyrrell’s letters. She encourages the reader to overcome the temptation to follow theories about Tyrrell by suggesting that “we ought to search Tyrrell himself for an understanding.” [1] I agree with her advice. Through the Prefaces and Introductions to his books, considered chronologically, I search Tyrrell’s thought for a demonstration of his meditative and contemplative character from which originated his creative and insightful understanding, which in turn changed my theological thinking.
It is unfortunate that at this time in the development of religious ideas, in the Western context at least, the place of philosophy in relation to theology seems to have been usurped to a great degree by sociology and psychology. And I am sure that contemporary theologians are the poorer for it. That having been said, it is my hope that those readers who are not philosophically inclined, but favour sociology and psychology, should they consider this article will uncover insights not previously realized.
Many contemporary Western theologians are in the process of rethinking the role of theology in the public square and its subsequent influence in secular society. Religious and spiritual ideas are often perceived as publicly needless, although they may be accepted as privately necessary. To my mind, theology as a post–Vatican II discipline is able to serve as a means whereby religious and spiritual ideas may be expressed in the public square, without offence to its secular status. Admittedly, theological thinking can serve as cause for division, fragmentation and disintegration within a society, thus giving offence to believer and non–believer alike. But this would be an aberration of theology’s intent.
Today, many theologians are seeking to make sense of the personal, but not necessarily private experience of the believer. And making sense of the believer’s experience is often rendered through narrative terms, that is, through the telling of one’s personal story of belief or faith commitment. Many theologians have their own story to tell, including the convert George Tyrrell.
In his day, and within his particular intellectual climate, George Tyrrell attempted to understand the human narrative through his own story of the experience and understanding of revelation. Being a theologian, his preoccupation with revelation and the religious narrative became a primary focus in his life. His theological legacy has its roots in the Roman Catholic theological views that were in vogue in the early 20th century. Tyrrell’s way of thinking reflects an early ecumenical discursive model of theologizing rather than the conventional polemical model of theologizing current at the time. On one occasion he admits as much about his seemingly aimless ideas. It is in his discursive model of theologizing, I suggest, that one finds Tyrell’s creative and insightful contribution to the understanding of his faith. His creative and insight contributions may enlighten the faith of others.
I draw the reader’s attention to the fact that many creative and insightful contributions from theologians are quoted and discussed by professional academics, as well as other literary reviewers. These academics and reviewers truly believe they have understood and correctly expounded the ideas of insightful and innovative theologians. And in most cases, they probably have done so, but not always. To my mind, George Tyrrell’s story of creative and innovative theologizing is a case in point. To my mind, and in hindsight, the appreciation of the how and why of his style of thinking is not as well understood as it could be among those seeking religious and spiritual enlightenment. A majority of academics and reviewers discuss Tyrrell from an historical perspective within the (so-called) Modernist Crisis in the Roman Catholic Church. The extensive bibliographies in M. J. Weaver and D. Wells on George Tyrrell’s life and thought support this observation. [2] However, David Schultenover focuses on a different historical understanding than that of the conventional one. Schultenover writes of Tyrrell’s way of thinking that “…its genre is intellectual history as distinguished from institutional history…[and] it aims to describe not the ‘modernist movement’ but the intellectual development of a major contributor to the ‘movement’ by focussing on the man as the key to his thought.” [3] Thus, I focus on Tyrrell’s philosophical and theological thought as stated in the Prefaces of his books.
In the Preface of a book the author often says what he said he said in developing the main thrust of an argument, or presentation of a purpose. So, I suggest that through a critical reading of the Prefaces of George Tyrrell’s books, readers may encounter a personality whose ideas they may come to appreciate and whose personal characteristics may endear him to them. To my mind, readers can discover Tyrrell’s intellectually meditative character by pondering over the Prefaces of his books. That being the case, a brief synopsis of the particular intellectual climate of his day will help readers in appreciating the context which contributed to his particular meditative character.
Particular Intellectual Influences
Tyrrell lived “at a time when religion seemed fated to be submerged and undermined by the vast torrent of secular knowledge that was sweeping over the intellectual world.” [4] This torrent of secular knowledge threatened to discount any intellectual meditative approach to religious experience. This threat was common to the intellectual worlds of the British Isles and the Continent. David Wells notes that Tyrrell displayed in is writings an Irish heart but he had a German mind which characterized him as straddling both worlds. Mary Green suggests that in Tyrrell’s day “Catholic religious thought had not kept pace with English religious thought in general, whether sound or poor, nor with Catholic and general religious thought in most countries on the Continent.” [5] Of German intellectual meditative thinking, which influenced Tyrrell somewhat, Joseph Gostwick notes that it had as its source earnest religious feelings which endeavoured to attain a unity of thought that could never be the result of knowledge founded on logical understanding alone. The development that Gostwick observed, was that “the ‘rights’ of intuition and immediate feeling – these rights so long suppressed under the tyranny of logic – were now allowed to be as valid as the conclusions of reasoning processes.” [6] Such validation nourished Tyrrell’s intellectually meditative character. In addition, “The Programme of Modernism,” identified by the encyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis of Pius X, provided a focus for Tyrrell’s provocative thinking.
The philosophical system known as Scholasticism is a product of its own age and time. Tyrrell recognized that the synthesis it provided no longer met the needs of the modern and scientific age. He probed into religious experience and, with the aid of critical thinking, desired to express his intellectual meditative understanding in a new frame of reference. In Leslie Lilley’s words Tyrrell could “no longer accept a demonstration of God supported by those ‘idols of the tribe’ – the Aristotelian conceptions of motion, of causality, of contingency, of finality.”[7] Percy Gardner suggests that some knowledge of Hegel’s dialectical philosophy would help in understanding the context of Tyrrell’s thinking. Gardner quotes Tyrrell as saying, “The process through which I have reached my present position will appear as a wavering, rather than a straight line, a result that should facilitate the critic’s task.” [8] As well, Bernard Reardon throughout his book acknowledges Hegel’s influence on Tyrrell’s thought. [9] A contemporary of Tyrrell, Hakluyt Egerton, (pseudonym for Arthur Boutwood), alludes to the meditative aspect of Tyrrell’s thinking. When Tyrrell speaks of “Divine Immanence,” Egerton does not believe that Tyrrell means Pantheism, the doctrine that God is the substance of all finite particulars. Rather, Egerton writes, “Undoubtedly Father Tyrrell believes that God is in man – although by way of mere indwelling, or as a part of man’s composite nature, is not clear [Egerton’s italics”]. [10] Egerton also notes that when Tyrrell distinguishes an ordinary experience of religion from an experience of revelation he does not refer to the objective source of the experience but refers to the experience itself by a description of its “subjective” character, that is, to its character as a psychological happening. According to Maude Petre, in a lecture entitled, “Revelation and Experience,” Tyrrell wrote a response to Egerton in which he sets forth this distinction: “Faith and knowledge cannot be confronted, because their realms are not the same.” [11]
These, then, are the particular intellectual influences in and through which Tyrrell thought and wrote and which shaped his character. They also gave rise to a distinctive approach to theology which is evident in his thinking throughout his thirteen books. I now turn to the Prefaces of those books.
Tyrrell’s Works
- 1900, Nova et Vetera: Informal Meditations
The Preface to this book was written in 1897. Tyrrell presents these meditations informally and leaves the reader to supply any practical applications deemed necessary. The wisdom which arises within meditation is often hidden from the clever and prudent and revealed to little ones. Such wisdom “does not leave them as it finds them in their ignorance and littleness” but rather gives them understanding, he says. In Maude Petre’s assessment of this book she writes: "The influence of this book can best be understood through a knowledge of the class of mind and soul to which it was primarily addressed. It was not written (or preached) mainly for the outside world; but rather for Catholics, and for Catholics earnest in the spiritual life. Many such had been trained to accept as inevitable a certain systematised form of prayer…and to many silent suffers in convents, but not convents only, the informal meditations of ‘Nova et Vetera’ came as a breath of fresh air into a close room."[12]
These meditations are not presented in any particular order since Tyrrell saw no specific advantage to be gained by logical classification. He records them as they occurred from time to time, spontaneously and unsought for, and in no way as parts of a whole. He cautions the reader to be aware of the way understanding is expressed by those within the Church and those outside the Church. The intent may not be the same even though the vocabulary is identical. Despite the human emphasis in these meditations, Tyrrell assures his readers that “no one will be likely to find fault with them as neglecting to give due emphasis to the Divinity of our Saviour and to the mystical aspect of Catholic Christianity.” He concludes the Preface by stating that the purpose of the book is to start the spiritual stream running where it has gone dry.
- 1901, External Religion: Its Use and Abuse
In this book, Tyrrell directs his lectures towards practice rather than speculation. He acknowledges that the Catholic and Protestant religion are animated by the same spirit that characterizes the whole of religious experience. Practice is to be preferred to theory in pastoral interpretation. This is so since there is potential for abuse in addressing controversial issues when individuals theoretically “first fix their beliefs, and then fabricate reasons in support of them.” By practising one’s beliefs one achieves a better understanding than by speculating about them. We are reminded that religion is an experiential interpretation of our in–born instincts and appetites, originally known unconsciously, but which are brought to our consciousness by Christ. In this book Tyrrell is writing with the British public in mind and his intent is to “let Truth appear, and then bid men, ‘Come and see!’ And of these, some will remain and some will go away, according to the power of seeing they bring with them.” Whatever manner an individual uses to apprehend the truth that manner must be susceptible to the understanding of others.
- 1902, The Faith of the Millions (First Series Chapters I – XII; Second Series Chapters XIII – XXII)
In the Preface to this book of meditations Tyrrell acknowledges the difference between English and Continental Catholicism. Further, he acknowledges that these meditations may also be understood from a different theological perspective by English and Continental readers. However, what English and Continental Catholicism share in common is that “religion must not only satisfy and equal [felt needs], but must transcend and promise to expand indefinitely man’s higher spiritual capacities.” Through interpreting Christ’s teachings in this collection of meditations Tyrrell has come to realize that ignorance is less an obstacle to enlightened understanding than false learning and mental deficiencies are obstacles to the same. Regarding the faith (of the millions), his understanding is that Christianity is not added to “complete” human nature rather Christianity is inherent in human nature.
- 1903, The Church and the Future
Maude Petre wrote the following words in the Introduction to the 1910 edition of this book, which lacks a proper Preface. ‘In my own inward history this book ends a painful process of necessary readjustment, and I feel as one who, after much uncertainty, has at last chosen a path that is clear, however difficult and uninviting in many ways.’ Thus Father Tyrrell wrote to a friend on June 27th, 1903, in regard to The Church and the Future, which he had printed privately under the pseudonym Hilaire Bourdon, and which was being circulated with great reserve and discretion. There was, during his literary career, a short period during which it was necessary that his advice to those in need should be anonymous or pseudonymous."
As well, in her Autobiography and Life of George Tyrrell, she reproduces a letter Tyrrell wrote to Baron von Hügel in 1903 about a book he intended to call, Catholicism Re–visited. [13] Tyrrell wrote: "I regard the ‘Catholicising of Christianity’ as a per se result of the Spirit of Christ, and not as a perversion or accident; but I perceive in that ‘Catholicising’ process (as in the scriptures) a divine and a human, an inspired and an uninspired element; and I apply the quod semper, etc. test in a practical way sc, beliefs and institutions which are proved, experimentally, to foster the Christian spirit, ipso facto, are proved to be true to that spirit. And by the Christian spirit I mean that spirit which spoke from the beginning in the prophets and men of faith, and found its most docile organ in Christ, and which still speaks in the corporate life of the Church, so far as holiness is found there, i.e., I make the Saints and not the theologians the teachers of Christianity. The Spirit of Christ rather than Christ Himself is the creator of the Church – or rather of the whole organism of the pre- and post–Christian Church of which Christ is the bond, and of which no part, not even Christ, exhausts the possibilities."
- 1903, Lex Orandi or Prayer and Creed
This book developed from an essay intended for private circulation, with the title ‘Religion as a Factor of Life’ under the pseudonym Dr. Ernest Engels. [14] Tyrrell assumes, in this work, that our spiritual nature develops within our religious sense which “furnishes an experimental criterion of belief.” In the human spirit there is a longing for the transcendent God, a longing that can never be satisfied. This bitter truth arises from experience. It is a difference in kind, not in degree, which leads to a life of solid value. He writes: “That we are dissatisfied, not only with what the Ideal gives us, but, by anticipation, with all it could ever possibly give us is proof that there is a higher love–power within us which must seek its object elsewhere.” Tyrrell notes that one who seeks after that which is divine in life, “may give himself to God’s work, God’s will, God’s cause, and yet not give himself to God.” Tyrrell acknowledges an Augustinian perspective in his thinking and remarks that the finite is transfigured by an illuminating grace, encountered in experience.
- 1904, Hard Sayings: A Selection of Meditations and Studies
Tyrrell wrote the Introduction to this book in 1898. He assembled this group of meditations with the hope that “the unity of their effect” would be felt upon the reader’s mind. These meditations and conferences were written at various times over a number of years. Maude Petre describes this text as “clear proof and expression of the militantly orthodox phase through which he passed.” [15] In writing these meditations and studies he attempted to counter an excessive rationalizing of the principles of Catholic Christianity. He makes no claim to have succeeded. He reminds the reader that these meditations “will serve to bring to our mind all the meaning and expression of a face if only it be already familiar to us by experience.” Maude Petre’s assessment of Tyrrell’s effort reads: “The first object of these pages is, then, to make Catholics ‘appropriate’ that which they often content themselves to hold by mere inheritance.” [16] Where one meditation may be weak another may be strong, says Tyrell, but some image of the whole truth may shape itself in the mind of the spiritual pilgrim. He cautions against a narrow rationalism that would lead the seeker of wisdom “to apply the methods and criteria of the ‘exact sciences’ to matters of a wholly different order, to be abhorrent of all that savours of mysticism.” Ultimate truths, concerned with the beginning and end of our existence, are set at the limit of our intellectual horizon yet our minds are made for understanding what lies between the beginning and end of our existence. That is, we are made in order to understand the movements and processes that disclose these ultimate truths framing the beginning and end of our existence. It is not our human need that determines our faith in God, but rather, what God has done in Christ out of love for us that determines our faith in God, Tyrrell says.
Tyrrell warns that if true religion does not feed the mind’s craving for the mysterious, the wonderful, the supernatural, then the mind will feed “on the garbage of any superstition that is offered it.” But this is false mysticism, or self–delusion, and “no more discredits the true mysticism of à Kempis or of St Teresa, than spiritualism discredits spirits or jugglery discredits the miracles of Christ.”
Reason is to help us in spiritual matters encountered in the mutable circumstances of human life. The collection of meditations in Hard Sayings is to be understood as a type of disciplina arcani based on Jesus’ parables which for those who could not understand “would have been only to their ruin and not their resurrection,” says Tyrrell. He shares with us a truth that he has come to realize. That is, the human heart is moved by the ethical conceptions of the Catholic religion. That religion embraces the clear conviction that she alone knows what is in man, and holds the secrets of life’s problems; that she alone has balm for the healing of the nations; that she alone can answer firmly and infallibly what all are asking, with an answer harsh at first sounding, and austere, but on reflection kind and consolatory, and, like the ‘hard sayings’ of her Master, ‘full of grace and truth.’
- 1906, A Much Abused Letter
Originally, Tyrrell did not intend to make this letter public. However, he justifies its public presentation due to altered circumstances and says, “I am convinced that such a course will remove far more scandal than it will cause.” In the Introduction he explains his reasons for changing his mind. They are: 1) that the letter in question is founded on ideas written two or three years earlier, 2) that the letter can only be judged in light of its original context, not read in extracts, 3) that parts of the published letter were not written by him but he does agree with their contents. These parts, he maintains, resulted from adaptation to local circumstances.
- 1906, Lex Credendi: A Sequel to Lex Orandi
Lex Credendi was intended as a “practical devotion” or pastoral theology and only secondarily as speculative theology. It is the purpose of theology to comment on revelation. Tyrrell acknowledged that the “heart has its reasons” but it also has its language. There is need to have some kind of dogmatic conception for religious expression, but at the same time in Tyrrell’s mind, the church is not a school to translate prophecy into the exact language of thought. Rather, prophetic language must be universal. Of this book Tyrrell writes: “It is not then directly as an expression of my own private judgment and spiritual orientation that I say the Credo, but as .an expression of the Church’s collective Faith, which I desire to share and appropriate, and which I acknowledge as a rule or norm.” It is the substance of the Creed, not its form that Tyrrell shares with us in this work. He seeks to share an experience of the Giver, not the gift; an experience of the spirit of Christ, not the teachings of Christianity; an experience of a full life rather than the implications of a Christian life.
- 1907, Oil and Wine
In this book Tyrrell acknowledged writing as one seeking the truth “not from on high, as a teacher, but as an inquirer on the same platform as my readers,” and as one who is just as blind as they. He has faith that the Spirit of Truth and Righteousness gradually reveals itself to the seeker of wisdom and works out its fuller manifestation in the community, and not in the individual. Spiritual progress comes with many a personal rude awakening, and “it is not ‘private judgment’ if, when it has irresistibly declared itself, we prefer the sovereign and most universal to any subordinate rule or ruler.” Of the Christ revealed in the Gospel, Tyrrell believed: “His spirit is not so concentrated and confined in the institutional church as not to be also diffused throughout Christendom and throughout humanity, where faith may often be found of a kind unknown in Israel.” Concerning his thoughts in this book, Tyrrell remarks that as unauthorized as they may be these “manifestations of the word” are offered as oil and wine to bind up the wounds of the “half–murdered wayfarer.” They are not offered as the “oil of consolation and the wine of spiritual stimulus.”
- 1907, Through Scylla and Charybdis or the Old Theology and the New
In this Preface Tyrrell expresses the hope that other individuals, more skilled than himself, once the controversy over his ideas has subsided “may perhaps take them up and turn them to better account.” Of these individuals Tyrrell writes: “We cannot sift them out from the mass, but there is always a minority, a saving leaven, whose judgment is in truth the judgment of God, and before whom we stand as before an invisible eye that watches and judges, condemns and acquits.”
- 1909, Medievalism: A Reply to Cardinal Mercier
This book lacks a Preface or Introduction. However, a Foreword for the book has been written by Gabriel Daly. He provides an historical and doctrinal perspective of the issues and the intellectual climate of the time that influenced Tyrrell’s thinking. Daly understands this book to be “a faithful reflection of [Tyrrell’s] most typical attitudes and convictions.”
- 1909, Christianity at the Crossroads
The Foreword of this book was written by Alex Vidlar, the Introduction by Maude Petre and the Preface by Tyrrell. Vidlar notes that those who were influenced by Tyrrell acknowledged that “they had found that he had a rare gift for interpreting the Christian faith and for illuminating the spiritual life.” Maude Petre speaks of Tyrrell’s peace of soul, his undisturbed friendship, study, prayer and character which were true goods in his life. He was not ambitious for fame or notoriety. He did not seek controversy but rather sought a calm understanding of controversial issues.
Tyrrell hoped for a synthesis between the essentials of Christianity and the scientific criticism current in the theological debates among the so–called Modernists. He noted that scientific truth and religious truth must each be examined by the principles of their respective disciplines. When he attempted this synthesis he realized that the discord initially caused was much less than expected. According to Maude Petre this book is a calm “examination of the value of this life, a study of its relation to the next.”
- 1914, Essays on Faith and Immortality
This book was published by Maude Petre after Tyrrell’s death. She wrote in the Introduction that Tyrrell possessed a “strange self–detachment” that fitted him for addressing “a problem which some of us can hardly endure to face.” She arranged these essays in light of Tyrrell’s intention of addressing the problem of faith and immortality. About these essays she wrote: They “will serve their purpose if they do what their author was always satisfied to do, namely to give the lead to some other mind which can carry the search a little further.”
NOTES
[1] Mary Jo Weaver, Letters from a “Modernist (Shepherdstown: Patmos, 1981), xvii.
[2] Mary Jo Weaver, Letters from a “Modernist (Shepherdstown: Patmos, 1981) and David Wells, The Prophetic Theology of George Tyrrell (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981).
[3] David Schultenover, George Tyrrell: In Search of Catholicism (Shepherdstown: Patmos, 1981), vii.
[4] Lewis May, Father Tyrrell and the Modernist Movement (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1932), 9.
[5] Mary Green, “George Tyrrell: The Modernist as Spiritual Director.” PhD thesis Saint Louis University (UMI Dissertation Services, 1978), 28.
[6] Joseph Gostwick, German Culture and Christianity: Their Controversy in the Time 1770-1880 (London: Norgate, 1882), 397.
[7] Leslie Lilley, The Programme of Modernism: A Reply to the Encyclical of Pius X, Pascendi Dominici Gregis (London: Fisher Unwin, 1909) 124.
[8] Percy Gardner, Modernism in the English Church (London: Methuen, 1926), 49.
[9] Bernad Reardon, Roman Catholic Modernism (London: Adams & Charles Black, 1970),
[10] Hakluyt Egerton, Father Tyrrell’s Modernism: An Expository Criticism of ‘Through Scylla and Charybdis’ in an Open Letter to Mr. Athelstan Riley (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1909), 199.
[11] Maude Petre, Autobiography and Life of George Tyrrell (London: Arnold, 1912, vol. 2), 360.
[12] Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 62–64.
[13] Maude Petre, Autobiography and Life of George Tyrrell (London: Arnold, 1912, vol. 2), 187.
[14] Ibid., vol. 2, 176.
[15] Ibid., vol. 2, 61.
[16] Ibid., vol. 2, 66.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Alfred Adler was an Austrian medical doctor and Founder of the Adlerian School of Individual Psychology. His emphasis on inferiority, "The Inferiority Complex," plays a key role in personality development.
Below is an Introductory Account and the text of my Master of Theology Thesis (1989)
FAITH, HOPE AND CHARITY: An Adlerian Perspective
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
(SCROLL DOWN FOR THE THESIS)
This thesis began by reflecting on the experience of contemporary life – on my experience in life in particular. In my reflection, it occurred to me that philosophical thinking was gradually being replaced by psychological thinking. In 1991, while on sabbatical in Dublin, Ireland at the Marianella Pastoral Centre operated by the Redemptorist Fathers, which unfortunately has since closed its doors, my earlier suspicions were confirmed. During the time that I spent there my philosophical and theological thinking underwent a process of becoming more critical and, as a result, became more helpful to me.
Through this critical and helpful fine turning, as it were, I came to realize that the relationship between culture and belief was undergoing a re-assessment by philosophers and theologians as the Newtonian understanding of the universe and its derivatives were being replaced by dialectical notions less dependent fixed on traditional philosophical concepts. To me it was becoming clear that psychology was gradually replacing philosophy and this led me to appreciate a new intellectual approach in the interpretation of Catholic theological concepts. Pastoral psychology, as it came to be called, had taken a lead in establishing a point of view which I subsequently appropriated in considering the virtues of faith, hope and charity in the light of Adlerian principles.
I concluded that faith, from an Adlerian perspective may be understood as a pastoral theological attitude arising out of an innate disposition described by Alfred Adler as social interest; Gemeinschaftsgefühl. Faith, traditionally considered as capable of “moving mountains” may now be understood as a creative power exercised by healthy individuals living in community. Similarly, hope finds its realization, not in a future idealized world, but in one’s present existence of a higher social interest cultivated on the part of the individual. Following Adler’s insights, charity being out-ward directed strengthens co-operation and reduces competition among individuals living in community.
I present this thesis now for publication without change or alteration to the original. The thesis was accepted in 1989 by Somerset University, Ilminster, UK, although minor emendations have been effected and typographical errors in the original have been corrected. My decision to publish it with Lambert Academic Publishing, was motivated by the fact that I believe that the topic remains of interest to academics, psychologists, clergy and pastoral assistants.
In the thesis, I preserve the distinction between psychology and theology which is often not the case in the contemporary written practice in both disciplines. In North America, it seems, the practice of clinical psychology frequently passes as the practice of pastoral care thus shifting the focus from the health of the soul to the health of the psyche. This shift also reflects a move from classical idealist philosophy to existential philosophy and it is still taking place.
In 1989, when I wrote this thesis, I was pastor in a small town in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. My pastoral duties were such that I had the time to undertake independent distance education before the internet became a popular and effective way to study. This thesis represents my initial attempt in formally integrating the ideas of the classical school of philosophical thought, in which I was educated, into an existential philosophical school of thought. I attempted to put into practice what I had learned in my philosophical undergraduate years and subsequently in my basic theological degree. Even though written a few years ago this thesis, to my mind, still has something relevant to offer to anyone interested the relationship between Adlerian psychology and the spiritual virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity.
Later in my career the thesis served as a basis for a book in 2003 entitled, Faith, Hope and Charity as Character Traits in Adler’s Individual Psychology: With related Essays in Spirituality and Phenomenology. By this time, (five years later), my thinking had developed and took on a greater appreciation for phenomenology. In 2003, I had made the acquaintance of Sheldon Nicholl, who had just graduated with a Master’s degree in Clinical Psychology from Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. He agreed to be the co-author of this book which included additional material written in conjunction with Erik Mansager whose doctorate in the psychology of religion had been obtained from the Catholic University of Leuven. In Part One of the book Sheldon Nicholl offers an outline of Adler's life and the basics of his Individual Psychology. In my contribution, I examine the relationship between Individual Psychology and Pastoral Theology. We give special attention to the role of cognitive therapy as the cardinal virtues of faith, hope and charity are explored, in some detail. As character traits, they are found to be in accord with the development of Adler’s notion of Gemeinschaftsgefühl. Part Two of the book is a compilation of previously published essays in American and British journals. One section consists of a set of six exchanges between Erik Mansager and me over the concept of “critical collaboration.” Essays that I have published elsewhere on Adlerian themes are included here as well. However, chapter eight is not specifically Adlerian in content. Since the root of Adler's Individual Psychology is anchored in German philosophical thought of the early 1900’s this chapter explores notions derived from the later Heidegger and the thought of Husserl.
Finally, for those readers interested in continuing to read about my publishing career, I suggest the two books below written with the aid of a co-author. They represent interests that continue to hold my attention to this day.
First, Reflections on the Interior Life: Critical Insights from William Gladstone and George Tyrrell was written in 2006. I wrote this book with George Drazenovich who was then working in community-based mental health services and was studying for his post-graduate degree in theology specializing in spirituality and mental health. He has had his work published in a variety of professional psychiatric and theological journals. In our book, we do not distinguish who wrote what passages. Rather, we integrated our thoughts and presented the text as one author. The book’s description reads:
This book discusses the thought of William Gladstone and George Tyrrell as existential thinkers. Neither claimed that his views were entirely new and neither represents a system of philosophy. Neither is agnostic or atheist in understanding the spiritual life but each writes as a committed Christian. Both share insights and philosophical perspectives similar to other Christian existential thinkers such as Søren Kierkegaard (Danish Lutheran), Nicolas Berdyaev (Russian Orthodox), and Gabriel Marcel (Roman Catholic) all of whom stand united in their opposition to the excessive objective and systematizing tendencies that began with Descartes and culminated with Hegel. In their writings Gladstone and Tyrrell worked at replacing a concentration on the objective world with an emphasis on the person as centre of their religious thought. Most classical philosophers have sought to show the connection between faith and reason through a scholastic approach. In an innovative move, existentialist philosophers turned away from the objective world to the being of the individual person. In some non-objective way, we must re-live another's experience and project ourselves into another's being for true spiritual knowledge. Our knowledge of physical objects is through appearance, but in understanding a person in a spiritual sense an authentic meeting between an “I” and “thou” and, “Thou” takes place. In such a meeting, humanity continues its attempts at forming right relations in the contemporary world as Gladstone and Tyrrell have shown in a Christian context. Reading the works of William Gladstone and George Tyrrell may constitute for the reader an existential relationship in the inner life of the Christian that can enhance one’s theological education.
Secondly, The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience, was written in 2011 with Peter Stuart, a free-lance writer on Canadian social issues particularly significant to Québec. The book’s description reads:
"The intent behind this book is to provide grist for the mill for research students and other interested readers. In Chapter One, I present an understanding of the social construction of religious activity, which maintains that social construction of religion arises from a dialectical engagement within the world from a phenomenological philosophical point of view. Peter Stuart presents a classical and traditional point of view, and readers expecting academic accord between us will be disappointed. A further rationale for writing this book is that both Peter and I desire to express our personal convictions in the public forum. We both have interests in the ebb and flow of civilization, especially as it pertains to the place of faith, religion, politics, and a variety of social phenomena, including economics, culture, gender, ethnicity, and the family, as well as the ebb and flow of money, power, property, and prestige, as articulated throughout history. We believe that writing about the place of faith and religion in French Canada is crucial if one is to understand the place that this ‘keystone’ civilization occupies within confederation and its enduring ambivalence regarding this civilization’s belonging to Canada, or not."
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[THESIS]
FAITH, HOPE AND CHARITY
An Adlerian Perspective
PREFACE
It is generally accepted that critical thinking arises out of experience, but in our day many have uncritically accepted principles and values from previous generations without sufficiently allowing for our experience to modify their application. This has resulted in a certain uselessness, perceived on the part of individuals, of values and goals received from previous generations. Today, something called “grass roots” theology is being undertaken in many quarters. By that I mean a type of theological thinking that arises out of one’s experience in life. There is a tendency in human thought for acts or actions of an individual to be based on the movement of thought from principle to application. And this principle is very often verified by reason. Whereas, in “grass roots” theology, one moves from experience to reflection, then follows a statement of principle. I have sensed such current critical thinking within a pastoral context. This has motivated me to undertake an investigation, from a pastoral perspective, into the relationship between the theological virtues and Alfred Adler’s thought. Dissatisfaction with philosophical thought as a basis for pastoral theology also prompted me to seek for something suitable in articulating my experience. This basis I believe to be psychology.
In the introduction to “Faith, Hope and Charity: An Adlerian Perspective,” I have attempted an explanation of how I understand this shift from philosophy to psychology as a tool in current theological thought. This shift takes place most evidently in pastoral theology as opposed to speculative theology. Speculative theology will undoubtedly employ classical philosophical thought for some years to come. I elected to concentrate on the theological virtues because of their perennial influence in our lives. They are common to all human kind. Although their expression varies from culture to culture, this does not prevent one from abstracting what is common to the human experience within a psychological perspective. Christian and non-believer alike articulate, in some form, the values recognized as faith, hope and charity. Alfred Adler was selected as an exponent of a school of psychological thought that can be effectively incorporated into practice in modern Christian ministry, as well as applied by anyone desiring the common good or betterment of the person. Adler’s contribution to practical theology is identified as Individual Psychology, which attempts to enable the individual to achieve a fulfilled and integrated life within a community context. This is accomplished by setting appropriate goals and attaining them. Also, scriptural teaching has the same purpose. The welfare of the individual in community has been the concern of Jewish and Christian thinkers all through recorded history. Not exclusively so, however, since other religious traditions have a history of similar concern. My purpose is to focus on what is common in human experience and relate it to the notions of faith, hope and charity, primarily addressed within a Christian context. To illustrate this modern critical thinking at work I compare and contrast the relationship between two sets of values or ideas. Faith, hope and charity, which are treasured within the Christian tradition and the set of notions expounded by Adlerian psychology, are examined for their similarities and differences. The focus is the individual, in which these notions are centered and lived out. The individual is considered as he lives in community and this allows a practical, pastoral expression of faith, hope and charity influenced by Individual Psychology.
Ministers, counselors and anyone interested in furthering his knowledge of the Christian faith, from a critical perspective could benefit from inquiring into Adlerian thought. In my view, it is incumbent upon the Christian to practice his faith in his environment. We live in a pluralistic setting and all knowledge cannot be summed up from one perspective. Whereas the past consideration of issues that occupied theologians were philosophically expressed, today we must seek outside that discipline and allow other modes of thought to influence our thinking. I believe that Alfred Adler has pointed the way in this direction. His psychological insight being compatible with Christian understanding is a good point of departure for modern thought to re-assess itself with respect to the Christian life.
INTRODUCTION
Anyone familiar with current theological or religious thinking will recognize that the Churches are reflecting upon themselves in the modern world. Habits of thought, practice and belief which were fruitful in the past are no longer experienced as relevant today. This is a healthy process. In keeping with the general thrust of all living communities to strive and develop to meet the needs of current conditions, Christians need to reflect upon contemporary experience and adjust their behaviour accordingly. This is growth, this is development. This assessment needs to occur both on a collective and individual basis. As a result of this we can expect that, of necessity, some pain and frustration will be part of the process. But is this not the case as we individually leave childhood to enter adolescence, and leave adolescence to enter adulthood? It is a bittersweet realization for most individuals who must make this adjustment. Not all realization comes with a crisis. Indeed, some individuals experience this discovery, of a satisfactory past becoming less satisfactory, as part of the normal process of maturing and growing in the world. This is a psychological phenomenon, common to all individuals, which is experienced consciously to varying degrees.
Whether Jew, Muslim or Christian, psychological development is part of human nature. What I propose to discuss in the following pages is not meant to be an historical criticism or assessment of the virtues of faith, hope or charity in the Christian’s life. Rather, I invite the reader to assess my comments and perspectives and decide to what degree what I say here coincides with his own experience and thinking. The reader’s life experience will play a part in the value of this work to him. I do not reckon comments and statements in this work as definitive or beyond reform. Good psychology is always in the state of flux as it adapts to the needs of individuals in the concrete situation. Freud, in his day was more accurate in his assessment, than his writings reflect today because the social interaction of individuals has changed. The context alters the assessment. In this investigation, I will consider the relationship between belief and culture. This issue has been addressed in many circles since the turn of the century and current investigations are contributing fresh insights into the effect of culture upon belief and belief upon culture. We have, as human agents, the capacity to determine what we will become. The future is literally in our hands as we make decisions that shape our environment which in turn shapes us. With this realization comes a radical new world vision, which abandons the world of Newton, a fixed system, and opens for us an undetermined future to be fashioned. Religiously and culturally, mankind is obliged to respond to this openness as part of his very nature.
Past generations, in so far as they were able, addressed the circumstances of their day to the best of their ability, seeking to fulfill their needs. Their legacy is not false. Rather it is inadequate for us, given our modern concerns and circumstances. Building on the past will require alterations for the future. Theological thinking requires that past perspectives be reinterpreted in the light of contemporary experience. This in turn necessitates a consideration of faith and culture.
An old adage, within theological thinking, is that “grace builds upon nature”. Today, we may express a variation of that theme as “grace respects psychology”. Philosophy and classical thought sought to articulate understanding between the secular world and divine revelation. That same process is at work today only the tools of the exercise are not theology and grace but psychology and grace. Psychology and grace are terms which represent a change, a development and enrichment, rooted within Christian philosophy and theology. These latter came into being when Christendom was at its height of influence in the Western world and a certain privileged relationship between church and state, the sacred and the secular, obtained. The struggle in modern times, while not denying the contribution of the past, is to account in contemporary terms for this same experience. This is a healthy endeavour. All too often, however, it is addressed as a problematic, a crisis to be overcome or solved in one’s life. From my perspective, this struggle is not pathogenic, not a crisis in a clinical sense of the term, but rather part of the normal stages of growth and development that each individual, to some degree, accepts to undertake as part of a normal life. Philosophy will be of little assistance to modern man in the day to day setting of his life. A contemporary discipline and corresponding understanding needs to be adopted as the vehicle to undertake this understanding of self-criticism. Psychology is that discipline. Historical Christianity, and indeed past society in general, often perceived as the “traditional” way of doing things, has placed constraints upon individual development. Legal constraints of the civil and ecclesiastical law, social mores, traditional customs are all examples of a type of unfreedom under which an individual has been required to live.
With a lifting of these constraints in civil and ecclesiastical thinking there appears to be a new sense of freedom available to the individual. In fact, this is true as an examination of history and social relationships will bear out. But along with the external freedom it is necessary to possess an internal freedom. By internal freedom I mean the ability to understand and execute what is necessary in the life of an individual. Obviously, the ability to do this will be relative to many things from the individual’s temperament to the family and economic situation into which one is born. But regardless of that the pattern of struggle and effort needed to be put forward will be the same for all concerned.
I suggest that an individual will need to be able to freely accept the virtue of faith, the virtue of hope and the virtue of charity to live as fulfilled a life as possible in the modern world. As we in our society lift the constraints of the past and invite individuals to accept responsibility in determining the outcome of their lives, the virtues of faith, hope and charity for the Christian - indeed for anyone - will need to be part of the individual’s psychological and spiritual make-up.
I am writing out of Christian religious experience on which these virtues are predicated -sometimes exclusively and hence erroneously - and it is my intention to explore these virtues in the light of modern psychology. The experience of many believing individuals is that former philosophical models no longer hold credibility as a means of articulating the virtues to modern man.
Writings and treatises on the theological virtues abound. One must define terms to avoid confusion and be clear in thinking. This work is approached from a psychological perspective. The majority of writing on the theological virtues has been within a scholastic tradition. While this has been fruitful and useful in the past, present day thinking is more psychologically orientated than philosophically orientated. And we must alter our thinking accordingly.
Few would contest that a virtue is a habit that makes its possessor good and the work he does good. Traditionally, a theological virtue has been understood as a habit whose immediate object is God - who is also the motive for doing good. Today we can build on this tradition and recognize that, both God and man, can be the proper object of the theological virtues. A proper consideration of this topic, from a psychological perspective, will bring us from a narrow doctrinal community to a broader human and spiritual community.
In the unit on faith I shall be adopting the perspective that faith is an attitude, a disposition and individual adopts vis à vis a perceived truth. Whether this truth is real or apparent makes no difference for our investigation. I am concerned with faith as a response process in an individual. While not denying the aspect of faith as divine gift, (capacity to believe), or faith as a habit, (the mind being disposed to give assent), I shall investigate the virtue with attention to the affective and relational dimension of the act.
It is likewise with the virtue of hope. The scholastic distinction of hope as a natural virtue, or theological virtue, I will not strictly preserve. Rather, hope will be addressed from a subjective context of the individual living in a future orientated community. There is an expectation on the part of human individuals that the future holds some form of goodness, of blessedness, that is in fact attainable, although it may be difficult. Charity will be considered as that emotive feeling with roots outside the individual, and his human condition. Love of fellow man and charity are virtually identical related terms. The scholastics distinguished between natural love and supernatural love (good willed to oneself or fellow man for God’s sake), but I shall allow these lines to blur and adopt a subjective rather than objective perspective. The common good and the Kingdom of God are, in fact, psychologically speaking, the same reality. By adopting this attitude towards the theological virtues I am shifting from a philosophical mode of thinking to a psychological method of thought.
I am not the first, nor indeed the last, I suspect, to recognize that classical philosophy is no longer adequate for modern man. William James, in the preface of his work, Varieties of Religious Experience, admits the same. This follows upon an attempt he made to show the adequacy of philosophy in satisfying man’s religious needs. What resulted was the realization that psychology was better suited to the task in our time. A re-reading of that book after the major portion of this thesis was completed prompted me to include at this point a brief assessment of some of the conclusions and observations of James’ work. Much of the subject matter of his lectures pertains to the topic of this theses. In many ways James has presented ideas and conclusions that are similar to Adler’s. Like psychologists today and practicing counselors, James observed that an affective experience is often more powerful than an actual event itself. This is also noted by Adler in his use of a psychological fiction in attempting to help the individual attain a healthy life-style. Whether or not this fiction corresponds to a reality is secondary in Adler’s thought. Likewise, James refers to a special reality which is not perceived through our ordinary senses, but perceived ‘as if’ that reality existed. This notion of ‘as if’ James discusses from a Kantian perspective, and it is tantamount to Adler’s psychological fiction.
In his lectures, James uses two terms which I regard as significant for this thesis. One term is ‘mind-cure’ and the other is ‘faith-state’. A healthy mindedness is necessary for an authentic religious experience. He states in Lectures IV and V that this is described as an optimistic scheme of life. This movement was in the early stages when he wrote, (and James acknowledges his own awareness of this), thus, into what sort of practical system it would develop was then unknown. But he considers the large group of individuals following this positive life attitude worth studying as a psychic group. Finally, he acknowledges that both Catholics and Protestants have sincere exponents in the ‘mind-cure’ movement who have more in common than they first may realize. ‘Faith-state’ is a term which James discovered in Professor Leuba’s writings. James will accept the definition given by Leuba but will prefer to employ the term, ‘state of assurance’. Three characteristics are evident should one attain this state of assurance.
They are difficult to understand by one lacking the experience but James lists them as consequential of this assurance. They are: a) a loss of all worry or anxiety, b) a perception of truths not known before, c) and an apparent change in the objective appearance of the world. Adler will also recognize these symptoms as indicative of a healthy individual attaining a higher degree of social interest.
Finally, for our purposes, it should be noted that James admits we can achieve union with something greater than ourselves. It is within that union we find great peace. This in not far from Adler’s understanding of one of the purposes of religion. Indeed, it is one of the things that religion does best for an individual from Adler’s point of view. There are a number of psychological theories advanced today about the person. Some are more suitable than others in investigating the question from a theological point of view. Jung, Freud, Erikson, and others have broken ground here and have given us new insights into psychological and religious activity. In this thesis, I will consider the contributions made by Alfred Adler to the understanding of human nature. Specifically, by focusing on the theological virtues of faith, hope and charity as lived realities in an individual’s life, I hope to show that Adler’s notions can enhance and enrich the Christian understanding of what it means to live in today’s context.
The suitability of Adler’s thinking on the topic will take up part of the task. This will be followed by a deeper consideration of the virtues individually and I hope to relate the findings of this investigation pastorally to those interested in seeking a fresh insight into traditional truths.
PART ONE
Psychology and Belief
Alfred Adler has introduced a system of psychological thought that stressed the importance of the individual being positively nurtured within his environment. Significantly, the term “inferiority feeling” became associated with Adler but it was often erroneously rendered as “inferiority complex” by others. The purpose of his system, as I recognize it, was to enable those emotionally disabled to become useful and an asset to society. Adler’s system obtains within a holistic and humanistic context which offsets any misunderstanding of an exploitive usefulness an individual may be to society. Adler entered medicine as his first career, but by 1900 he had become interested in psychology. For a period of ten years or so he was associated with Sigmund Freud but as time went on he developed ideas and theories that were not totally compatible with the Freudian school. His final disassociation with Freud led to the establishment of the school of thought known an Individual Psychology. This movement grew and was accepted by psychologists and educators on both sides of the Atlantic leading to various centres of Adlerian research and application of method. Within Individual Psychology there are basic orientations that are very sympathetic to a Christian perspective on life. They may be briefly summarized as follows: i) all important life problems are social; that is, beset the individual in a social context; ii) the individual is a self-consisting unity in his composition; and iii) health is attained by the individual in a set of harmonious social relationships. These orientations will be explored below with the intention of highlighting Adler’s usefulness to pastoral theology.
Adler did much work with children and much of his theory is related to childhood experiences. In fact, educators pay serious attention to his research and formulate educational programmes accordingly. I am of the opinion that adults can also profit greatly from Adler’s insights. This requires adaptation to the adult experiential situation which is presupposed here. Unfortunately, Adler died unexpectedly, on a lecture tour in Scotland in 1937, before giving to his theories the full benefit of his genius. Psychology and belief are considered below, and it is within this general context that I explore Adler’s contribution to pastoral theology.
It is from within the discipline of pastoral theology that the notion for this work was first conceived. My intent in this project is to investigate the relationship between the theological virtues of faith, hope and charity in the context of the Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. Based on experience and theory, it is my contention that Adler’s thought can be usefully applied in pastoral theology to assist growth and health in the individual. In fact, his insights will allow faith, hope and charity to be wholesomely practiced and effectively lived by modern 20th Century man. One’s belief and faith are socially and culturally interdependent. Together they constitute religion. Psychology studies religious activity as psychic processes in an individual. Religious activity operates in influencing one’s actions and setting one’s values and goals. Individuals live and exist in a social context and exercise their belief and faith in that social context. These acts of belief and faith in the individual belong to the religious activity of all regardless of denomination. For the consciously religious individual they are recognized as intrinsic to his nature. Also, humans are individually and collectively religious. L. B. Brown in his studies acknowledges the singular and social nature of religious activity.
Religion is a cultural phenomenon, and a fact of subjective consciousness and individual behaviour. It also belongs to the collective consciousness, and is a social institution. (1) Within his understanding of the person Alfred Adler acknowledged the subjective experience of the individual in a social context. The individual sees all his problems from a perspective which is his own creation. Thus, he also sees the environment which trains him with his own self-created perspective which changes its effects upon him for better or worse. (2)
Faith provides the object of belief and culture effects the attitude of belief that an individual acquires. I adopt here the classical notion of theologians that faith is an act of commitment of one individual to another. The other’s presence is accepted and trusted, often without concrete evidence, allowing one to grow and develop. An early recorded example of this act of faith is related in Genesis 2:1-9, Abraham’s response in faith to God’s initiative. However, in a Christian culture we must speak of a Christian faith. In a Christian individual, we must speak of a Christian belief. What our culture offers us to believe and the faith attitude we adopt towards life will indicate how healthy we are as individuals and as a society.
Principles developed by Adler in his Individual Psychology can be extended and applied in understanding ourselves in the modern world. Adler adopted the term lifestyle for this process. Adlerian psychology contains diverse principles and it is difficult to present a systematic body of this thought. However, there are general observations that merit investigating for they will shed light on the human condition and can serve in clarifying our behaviour as religious individuals. Before focusing on Alfred Adler and his Individual Psychology and its subsequent use in pastoral theology I, briefly, will note some similarities between psychology and the discipline of theology. Theology and psychology have a number of characteristics in common. Firstly, both have exponents who adopt many diverse points of view. We speak of schools of psychology just as we speak of schools of theology. When and under what historical and social conditions an author wrote influence his understanding of the events taking place in his lifetime. Theology has seen fit to alter its position and understanding of its doctrines as new light is shed upon man’s knowledge of himself. This developmental aspect characterizes both psychology and theology. In both disciplines the betterment of the individual, singularly and in community, has been the purpose. Adler recognizes this relationship between the two when he writes,
If I am venturing now to maintain the right of Individual Psychology to be accepted as a view of the universe, since I use it for the purpose of explaining the meaning of life, I have excluded all moral and religious conceptions that judge between virtue and vice. I do this although I have been convinced for a long time that both ethics and religion as well as political movements have continually aimed at doing justice to the meaning of life and that they have developed under the pressure of social feeling, which is an absolute truth.... According to this position every tendency should be reckoned as justified whose direction gives undeniable proof that it is guided by the goal of universal welfare. Every tenet should be held to be wrong if it is opposed to this standpoint or is vitiated by the query of Cain: ‘Am I my brother’s keeper?’ (3)
While it is true that originally psychology and theology were not easily integrated and in the minds of many they were in fact at cross purposes much has changed in the present context. Theologians and psychologists are becoming aware of their interdependence. In my own pastoral experience, I have been privileged to know a psychologist, with an active practice, who is studying for her Master of Divinity degree.
She recognizes the necessity of sound theological understanding in her work with patients. It is the nature of pastoral theology to have a practical dimension to its application. This distinguishes it from speculative theology. Within the Roman tradition, it was with the Second Vatican Council that pastoral theology began to make great strides in application and development. A living world-wide community like the Catholic Church recognized that there was a need to offer guidance and direction to her members based on a lived 20th Century experience. Indeed, some commentators noted with optimism that the council’s purpose was intentionally pastoral, not doctrinal, in its deliberations. Flannery appends this note to his translation of the Council document, Gaudium et Spes “The constitution is called ‘pastoral’ because, while resting on doctrinal principles, it seeks to set forth the relation of the Church to the world and the men of today.” (4)
Theologians were allowed and encouraged, to some degree, to seek in secular studies and disciplines what is positive and supportive of an individual’s development and growth as a human being. The purpose of spiritual direction or pastoral psychology, as it is known, is betterment of the individual. On an individual and collective basis the well-being of the person is desired. This is also the purpose of psychology. It is in their praxis that psychology and pastoral theology overlap and in fact are complimentary. What will need to be distinguished is the way in which each assists the individual to a healthy and fulfilling life. Or, as Adler phrases it, “We approach the problem from a different angle, but the goal is the same - to increase interest in others.” (5)
A Consideration of the history of religions would soon demonstrate that what insights and perspectives religious activity has for an individual are not exclusively a Christian possession. Indeed, all religions, for the psychologist offer some attempt at individual betterment of the person in the context of his life situation. From the many forms of natural religious activity through to the world’s great revealed faiths of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, psychologists recognize the common purpose of the betterment of man. This recognition is a development within the Christian faith which at one time in history speculated theologically that it, and it alone, held the key to mankind’s well-being.
The time will soon be with us when a theologian who attempts to work out his position unaware that he does so as a member of a world society in which other theologians equally intelligent, equally devout, equally moral, are Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims, and unaware that his readers are likely perhaps to be Buddhists or to have Muslim husbands or Hindu colleagues - such a theologian is as out of date as is one who attempts to construct an intellectual position unaware that Aristotle has thought about the world or that existentialists have raised new orientations, or unaware that the earth is a minor plant in a galaxy that is vast only by terrestrial standards. (6)
Can the practice of the psychologist and pastor be favourably compared? Each seeks to have the individual achieve some degree of harmony in his life. Each seeks to promote the welfare of the individual and the community. Different paths may be sought but there is a common purpose. Often the paths do cross and principles common to the theologians and psychologists are recognized and successfully applied in assisting the individual.
The varying points of view in the schools of theology and psychology testify that rigidity and complacency are to be avoided. Good pastoral theology like good psychology takes risks. Both, by their nature must remain open to valid experience of those who live the life of a pilgrim. It is here in this area, as yet to be fully clarified, that psychology and theology can best enhance each other. Psychology, being the more recent discipline, can learn much from theology and the spiritual masters of the past. Theology can also profit greatly from psychology’s contribution to the understanding of the nature of man. Growth and development are natural to the individual. Whether one be considered psychologically or theologically the individual member of the human race is not a static being. Traditionally in Christian experience this growth is recognized in an activity known as spiritual direction. It may range from a formal systematic investigation of life, following some acknowledged mentor, to being addressed more casually as in the everyday regulation of interpersonal activity encountered in a secular world. A goal is needed in all authentic spiritual direction. That goal is called perfection by classical masters of the spiritual life. Depending upon the tradition followed, there is more than one means to reach perfection. It is possible in this modern time for the word “perfection” to raise some ambiguity in meaning. By perfection is not meant an absence of error or to be without flaw. This is a contemporary use of the word unknown to the spiritual authors of the past. Rather by the term I mean something akin to an optimal condition in life that enables the best in an individual, and by extension, in a society, to come to full fruition. This is a continuous process all through the individual’s experience never coming to a final completion in this life. The ascetical theologian, A. Tanquery, in his treatise on the spiritual life expresses perfection as, “the approach toward that end by the development of all one’s faculties and the carrying out in practice of all duties, in accordance with the dictates of the natural law as manifested by right reason.” (7) The Christian is a believer. That is, he is an individual who places his faith in God and then governs his life accordingly. This action requires distinctions to be made as the individual assesses the world, his relationship to others, and his life vis à vis the God in whom he believes.
Christian theology has recognized two domains, as it were, over the centuries respecting the individual’s spiritual life. One, the world and the other, life in Christ, which is experientially different in the individual of faith. Some form of evaluation is required by the Christian life. This evaluation is not of a moral nature, classifying things as good or evil in themselves, but rather an attitude that touches upon the quality of life. Speaking of this quality of life Adler says, "When we say it is a feeling, we are certainly justified in doing so. But it is more than a feeling; it is an evaluative attitude toward life (Lebensform)....We are not in a position to define it quite unequivocally, but we have found in an English author a phrase which clearly expresses what we could Contribute to an explanation: ‘To see with the eyes of another, to hear with the ears of another, to feel with the heart of another.’ For the time being, this seems to me an admissible definition of what we call social feeling." (8)
The believer recognizes that God takes the initiative in any growth and that the believer’s part is to respond. This classical and venerable approach has been accepted down the centuries by spiritual masters, both in Old and New Testament times. The spiritual life has its own point of departure according to theologians. There is a curriculum in spiritual growth that obliges both the director and the disciple. Even when the director is God, as initiator of movement in the spiritual life, this process obtains. “In this curriculum two basic things are necessary: first there must be grace and power from God; and second, there must be steadfast co-operation by us with what God is seeking to do in our souls.” (9)
Since assessment of God’s initiative belongs to speculative theology, which is a discipline in its own right, my subject will be the individual himself which I will consider from the perspective of pastoral theology. Pastoral theology arises directly out of our experience in the world as the believer integrates that experience into his belief in God. Thus, in order to develop our thought within the discipline of pastoral theology in this work I will follow the observation made by Hughson in his study of human destiny; “Let us, then, take God’s part for granted, and consider what should be done to secure our own faithfulness.” (10) To “secure our own faithfulness” allows the investigation of Adler as a means of developing our spiritual life and health.
One may see in St. Augustine’s famous remark the beginnings of a pastoral theology. Reflecting upon his life Augustine recognized that his experiences needed to be reconciled with revelation and that this reconciliation was in fact a dynamic activity. His experiences included those of a pagan life which he incorporated into his Christian faith, enabling him to express in his Confessions that we are made for God and our hearts are restless until they rest in him. How this restlessness may be satisfied will be a concern in this thesis.
Within Christian investigation of the subject of man’s restlessness and subsequent contentment there is a division in thinking. Some authors consider this desire for God to be God-given and not natural to man. It is part of God’s initiative to stir up man’s belief. Others hold this desire for God is natural to man - believer or otherwise - since it is integral to his natural make up. Indeed, within the animal kingdom, this desire for God is what makes man the human animal. Whether this distinction is correct or not, I leave to speculative theology.
I accept, as an experiential fact, that man is a religious animal and his religiousness needs to be accounted for in his experience of life. Adler’s notion of striving for social interest is sufficiently akin to Augustine’s restlessness to allow one to recognize a common discovery in the experience of both men. The high degree of cooperation and social culture which man needs for his very existence demands spontaneous social effort, and the dominant purpose of education is to evoke it. Social interest is not inborn [as a fullfledged entity], but is an innate potentiality which has to be consciously developed. (11)
This view will locate us properly within the discipline of pastoral theology and allow us to consider the use of psychology as a pastoral tool. The believer will experience a power in life. A power that gives him stability to live life, to overcome obstacles and to achieve good during his time on earth. This power can lead one to health and fullness of life and well-being. The non-believer will also lay claim to a power that he experiences in his life that does much the same. Today we understand many kinds of power. There is physical power, political power, economic power, intellectual power, spiritual and moral power. Which belongs to the Christian? Which belongs to secular man? Are they in fact shared by both? Christianity has understood certain powers as virtues. These powers are nothing less than the virtues that bring about some good, accomplish some desired end within the development of the person. Some hold they are only God-given. Others recognize them as innate to the human individual. Pastorally, the following definition of power is useful since it is the definition of a virtue. “Power may be defined as the possession of a right, ability and freedom to act with efficiency in some given sphere in relation to a definite objective.” (12) St. Paul speaks of power in the 13th chapter of his first epistle to the Corinthians. Faith, hope and charity are seen as being effective in bringing about growth, development and well-being in the individual. Faith brings about a grasp of the truth, hope brings about an enjoyment of security, and charity brings about an overcoming of evil or harm that threatens to destroy or at least debilitate the individual.
An investigation of modern psychology will show that it also attempts much the same. Health and well-being of the individual are of paramount importance since this leads to health and well-being of society as a whole. Since the purpose of the essay is to investigate Adlerian psychology with respect to the virtues of faith, hope and charity, Adler’s notions and insights will be my concern in the balance of the work. In life, the individual has a tendency within himself to strive towards wholeness. As well, individuals have historically understood themselves as bearers of a moral will. Adler recognized a responsibility of an individual to himself and as an individual to a community. Community is what Adler understood as life-style.
Man is more than the result of the forces which scientists investigate and use, more than the product of the holistic metaphysical force which governs the atom, the cell, the plant and animal life. Man bears responsibility; he has a mind which can distinguish between right and wrong. (13) In attempting to understand why Adler would see the individual and the community in harmonious order as indicative of a healthy life-style, we must remember that he along with others lived through a world war that was the most devastating and barbaric up to his time. He and other thinkers of the time were influenced, due to the severity of the war, to see human co-operation as necessary for survival and health of the human race. In applying his thought to the current time, we must remember that many thinkers, philosophers, theologians and psychologists do not have the same understanding as to what is particularly good for mankind. This in fact makes no difference, however, if one accepts the perspective that plurality is possible. Within this plurality a consensus on health of the individual is achievable via Adlerian psychology. Adlerian psychology aims at enabling people to fulfil the tasks of work, friendship and love. They should be able to express their personalities freely in these activities, forgetting themselves. Such life is spontaneous and the source of true happiness. It is health. (14)
This understanding articulates well with the Christian notion of faith. Faith, too, has a similar object, a goal of health realized between the individual and the community. A faithful individual is a healthy individual, psychologically speaking. It is the goal of social interest that determines the general good of mankind. In fact Adler’s principles transcend his own era and can be adapted, with modification, to our situation. Health and well-being are interconnected with faith. Both embody a stance that requires an effort, a risk, an element of the unknown in the human situation. From an Adlerian point of view, to comprehend an individual, understanding of his feelings of inferiority and his goal of superiority, need to be taken into account. The terms inferiority and superiority are not to be understood as pejorative concepts but rather as terms indicating poles of contrast between which an individual strives to overcome obstacles in life. He becomes an integrated individual. Faith engages this relationship as well. It is through faith, an attitude seeking health, that the individual seeks to participate fully in the life of the community. Indeed, Christians often understand their churches and fellowship groups as ‘communities of faith’. One’s attitude to community reveals one’s life-style.
From a pastoral point of view, I suggest that one’s appreciation of the theological virtues of faith, hope and charity reveals this life-style. As well, whether one’s life is healthy or not, psychologically speaking, could be determined by this same life-style. Life is not static. Psychology looks upon the individual as a dynamic entity. The habit of the past has been to view the good, the perfect, the virtuous as something fixed, an ideal after which to conform. While this is acceptable in some schools of thought, it is not a sufficient approach within theology or psychology today. The static approach is no doubt due to a persistent reliance on classical Greek thinking typified by Plato and Aristotle. In this realm of thought, reality is considered fixed and unchanging, whereas lived experience is somehow a shadow of reality. For hellenization introduced into Christianity ideals of immutability, stability and impassibility as perfections that all Christians and Christianity as a whole should strive for, since these were the typical and central perfections of God himself. (15)
To envision health as conforming to such an ideal or form is not adequate. The criticism is made that, “The human spirit is only too well accustomed to reduce everything that is in flux to a form, to consider it not as movement but as frozen movement, movement that has become form.” (16) Indeed, Individual Psychology posits that it is in the striving, the effort advanced for improvement that the good is achieved fully in the human context. All goals are imagined to which the individual is orientated.
They are conceived of as future goals after which the individual strives to make concrete in the present. Meaning in life varies from individual to individual. The meaning one gives to life may be healthy or unhealthy. This can be recognized from one’s life-style. The experience an individual has, with its accompanying subjective significance, is what gives meaning to life according to Adler. In a healthy individual meaning cannot be private but must be communal by nature. In fact private meaning is no meaning at all in Adlerian thought. The believer’s attempt at incorporating the practice of the virtues into a life-style, must be in a communal context. This thought resonates well with theology - especially Christian theology - which stresses the necessary relationship between the individual and the community. Private meaning is no meaning at all, but as the virtues are experienced individually, they in fact become meanings for the community. They need to be lived out as such. Integrity and health are created within a community of experience and influence. Whether or not others can share in this experience and subsequently accept it as valid, establishes its communal meaning. Up to this point I have been speaking as a Christian. This is not to lay exclusive claim, however, to the truths experienced by Christians as the only valid expression of truth. Christian theologians are increasingly admitting the validity of religious experience outside the traditional understanding of the institutional Church, the People of God. In addition, to William James who affirms this, Charles Davis, tells of his own discovery of this truth in A Question of Conscience. He speaks of the Church as a “zone of truth”. He no longer accepts the Roman Catholic Church as the legitimate representative of the truth. But this, for him does not entail a rejection of the virtues of faith, hope and charity. Other social structures are more conducive for one to experience and live out these virtues. His experience, I am sure, is repeated by members of various Christian denominations in our society today.
In all religious activity, the goal is the same - i.e. the salvation of man. This goal may be understood in the Christian sense as redemption from sin or in the humanitarian sense of betterment. In either case the dynamic of faith will be the same. One can recognize this phenomenon as a striving for social interest. Practicing the virtues of faith, hope and charity are part of the religious life-style. As part of the religious lifestyle they can be articulated through Adler’s principles of the psychological dynamic at work within the individual. Faith, hope and charity as Christian virtues are goals related towards the healthy and salvific life-style of the individual. As Adler phrases it, “In all religions we find this concern for the salvation of man. In all great movements of the world men have been striving to increase social interest, and religion is one of the greatest strivings in this way.” (17)
How one interprets and gives meaning to one’s experiences determines the relationship with the world at large. The same can be said of our practice of the virtues. Faith, hope and charity or lack of them convey something of the individual and his lifestyle. Absence of social interest according to Adler would indicate an unhealthy lifestyle. Can it even be said a neurotic life-style? It is healthy for an individual to be community orientated and possess a goal of social welfare. Man as a religious organism has a dynamic orientation in life that can be healthily expressed in practicing the theological virtues. The virtuous life-style is community orientated. The Christian, in setting up goals determined by the virtues, will avoid neurotic behaviour and create a healthy environment for himself and others. Incorporation of these virtues into a life plan will advance society. Indeed, one could go even further and claim that the Christian community can be realized by our practice of these virtues. Human wholeness can be realized in a life-style that is goal orientated. The practicing of these virtues constitutes a life-style that can be satisfactorily encouraged by Adler’s notions of man’s psychological make-up.
For general guidance, I would like to propound the following rule: “…as soon as a goal of a psychic movement or its life-plan has been recognized, then we are to assume that all movements of its constituent parts will coincide with both the goal and the life-plan.” (18) This brings us now to a more detailed consideration of the virtues individually and how they can be understood by modern man in the light of Adler’s psychology.
PART TWO
Faith
Within the traditional Christian perspective, it is held that God is the only proper object of faith. In fact, all great monotheistic religions have accepted this premise. Unlike belief, which can have an inanimate object for its goal, faith is necessarily expressed in a dynamic order. I am considering here faith as a response to an invitation, a capacity to relate, not as an object or thing given. God is the object of faith in the sense that recognizing him sets up a relationship between two individuals. That relationship is in the dynamic order and has the capacity to grow and develop. On the part of the individual the act of faith proves nothing as to the existence of God. It is a subjective experience that admits of no verifiable investigation in the scientific realm. Yet a faithful person demonstrates an attitude, and life-style that clearly reveals that something is happening. This is an activity that is indicative of growth and development which can often, but not always, be recognized by others. Faith then has a communal dimension. As the faith response in one individual is recognized, at the same time it inspires this same response in others of like disposition. This disposition is innate to the human being and can be encouraged by the discipline of psychology in order to help it grow and bear fruit.
Adler’s understanding of religious activity can provide support for the dynamic of faith. In Adler’s understanding, God is not a being as Christians have traditionally understood the term. However, since this investigation takes a look at man’s response to God’s initiative, whether God is a being or some other posited goal, makes no difference for the purposes at hand. The dynamic of the faith response is the same whether it orientates itself to Yahweh or Buddha. Adler is working with a psychology of values which is a departure from the Freudian school. An Adlerian psychology of values is open to assist a believer in searching for the truth and an improved response to God’s initiative. Pastoral theology recognizes this and aims to improve the health and wellbeing of an individual by working within his experience.
God is not a pre-existent being in Adlerian thought, (this notion has been inherited from Hellenic thinking), but rather a noble idea that has appeared in man’s conscious expression of himself. It is a natural inclination to strive for perfection and positing a goal of God permits the process of striving to accomplish its work, the betterment of the individual. One concretization of the idea of perfection, the highest image of greatness and superiority, which has always been very natural for man’s thinking and feeling, is the contemplation of a deity. To strive towards God, to be in Him, to follow His call, to be one with Him - from this goal of striving (not of a drive), there follow attitude, thinking, and feeling. (19)
The question we might ask ourselves is that, does this form of faith relationship become invalidated because God is not traditionally conceived? The answer I suggest is no. The idea of God initiates a faith response on our part and can well serve the aims and purpose of a pastoral theology or psychology. Within this framework of thinking one recognizes that faith is not an object to be grasped but rather an attitude expressing a relationship between the individual and his goal. For the Christian that goal will be God, the father of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
For the non-believer that goal is the ideal of perfection. In both cases the dynamic of faith is the same. Faith is a state of mind which has great possibilities of growth and development within pastoral theology. The attitude of faith is not an additive to an individual. It is not acquired. This dimension of an individual’s make-up is integral to his human nature - in fact it makes him human. As an individual grows physically, he also grows psychologically and spiritually. Whether he is a Christian or Buddhist, or a non-believer the individual grows and strives via an attitude of faith. Adler accepts this when he writes: "The strong possibilities of a concretization of a final goal of Perfection and the irresistible attraction to it are firmly anchored in the nature of man, in the structure of his psychological apparatus. So, too, are the possibilities of psychological joining with others. The sanctification of these possibilities strengthened them in their development by setting the entire thinking and feeling apparatus into continuous movement. "(20)
I am suggesting that God or a guiding fiction is sufficient to set the faith dynamic in motion. I’ll leave to speculative theology the task of determining any advantage of god over a guiding fiction. Some may recognize no fundamental difference, only an expression of preference on the part of an individual. However, for my part, as a Christian believer, there is a dimension to faith’s experience present to the believer that is absent in the non-believer. This realization comes from talking, working, counseling and being present to many individuals in a pastoral setting. Here is the watershed between pastoral counseling and for the lack of a better word, community counseling which lacks religious belief.
One needs to recognize that faith as a theological concert is ambiguous today in the experience and minds of many. Faith is not belief in our understanding in this work. Nor is faith considered in its traditional understanding as a “gift”, and object given from outside the individual. This is not to deny faith as a gift but simply to restrict our consideration to the faith response as a growth dynamic in an individual. I am considering faith as an attitude, an expression of confidence in another that is natural to an individual. Leslie Dewart has written a critique of modern man’s insistence of employing Hellenic thought concepts in articulating his religious experience. He expresses faith this way.
Faith is the existential response of the self to the openness of the transcendence disclosed by conscious experience. It is our decision to respect, to let be, the contingency of our being, and, therefore, to admit into our calculations a reality beyond the totality of being. (21) This distinction is important for our purpose in psychology as we attempt to understand the virtue of faith. Faith has an affective dimension that belief does not. In other words, faith brings about some change, movement or development in the individual. This is not likely so with respect to belief. One can believe a given datum without any affective result. A Christian who is faithful toward the person of Christ ought to be able to show signs of being a Christian, i.e. being a forgiving individual, being compassionate and generous person.
In the Roman Liturgy, the Profession of Faith (creed) occurs after the homily. The text of the Vatican Council Document on the Liturgy illustrates this dual understanding of faith, as a gift and as a response on an individual’s part, is intrinsic to modern understanding. While not denying the objective perspectives of the statement, it accepts the subjective response of the individual.
The purpose of the Profession of Faith (or Creed) is to express the assentand response of the people to the scripture reading and homily they have just heard, and to recall to them the main truths of the faith, before they begin to celebrate the Eucharist [emphasis mine] (22) Christian theology accepts that God himself may be manifest to the believer through his word, scripture, and through preaching. Therefore, it is proper to speak of a faith attitude to the Word and preaching. We must distinguish between authentic faith and inauthentic faith. How to distinguish between the two is a question of discernment and impinges on the notion of the health of the individual. There seems to be no certitude in determining the religious experience of faith in individuals given the wide variety of religious experience.
However, individuals of authentic faith will recognize each other. Or considered another way an unhealthy individual will likely appear neurotic to the community. Given, as Adler postulates, the individual makes his meaning in life within a communal context, an individual striving towards a goal not in the social interest of the community, would be an unhealthy individual. Or, be a person of inauthentic faith, when considered from a theological perspective. The individual of inauthentic faith has recognized something less than social interest as his goal and strives for that. “In theological terms those with an inauthentic faith have confused something less than God with God.” (23) In accepting the above orientation on thought it becomes increasingly difficult to articulate the classical view that faith is exclusively a divine gift, as if it were something added to an individual nature by a superior power. This has been the long-held view of many theologians but not all theologians are in accord. Even before modern psychology made inroads into theological thought certain thinkers challenged this view. F. R. Tennant writes, “Faith is an outcome of the inborn propensity to self-conservation and self-betterment which is a part of human nature, and is no more a miraculously superadded endowment than is sensation or understanding.” (24) However, the majority of Christian theologians and philosophers have held faith to be a divine gift. The philosopher, Peter Geach, sums up in my view the principles of classical thought underlying the necessity of faith. They are contained in these statements:
– there is corporate corruption, but not corporate salvation, of the human race. – By nature, then, we tend to acquiesce in being the sort of flawed creatures that the Fall has made us.
– A true conception of God is to be got by believing authoritative testimony - that is the Judeo-Christian (and Muslim) view. (25)
‘Authoritative testimony’ is God-Given. That he may give to some and not to others, is part of the Christian theological heritage, which is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain in the modern world. Only God’s gift of grace could possible redeem mankind from this peril in classical Christian thought. This perspective needs reassessment.
Opposite to Geach, who implies that authoritative testimony is found in the Judeo - Christian tradition is the view espoused by Charles Davis. His can be understood as a personal and pastoral response. In the section entitled, ‘Prospect for the Church’, he discusses this question and comes to an opposite conclusion. Christianity being an eschatological faith, he argues, cannot be wed to any particular culture, but indeed, transcends all cultural forms. The future end of Christianity is outside history hence cannot be finally encapsulated in any form - including the western cultural heritage it now employs. An authentic Christian stance must be recognized as transitory. The tension between the classical notion of faith and the contemporary expression is not a negative condition. Rather, it can be seen to be a product of development over the ages. Since the individual’s experience varies from culture to culture, and generation to generation, it is reasonable that one’s faith experience varies from generation to generation, culture to culture.
This is possible because the Christian faith is not wedded to any given cultural form, any more than it is to be found as a pure essence, devoid of concrete cultural form. As it can endure through history and transcend cultures, it can transcend concepts. Therefore, the traditional Christian faith can be cast not only in the traditional concepts but also in the novel, emergent concepts that an evolving human experience creates. (26) Here one can place the emphasis on the individual’s response in the act of faith, rather than on God’s initiative. This allows an excellent opportunity to introduce into our practice of the virtues the principles of Individual Psychology to assist our growth in the spiritual life.
In the light of Adler’s principles applied to the practicing of the virtues of faith these notions may have to be abandoned by the modern individual if he is to live an authentic and healthy life. Rather than accept faith as a given datum in life. Faith must be recognized as a relationship arising out of our experience with one another, if it is to be a significant and meaningful event for modern man. There is a touch of irony here in Leslie Dewart’s comment that clearly illustrates a contemporary working of the act of faith.
In the person of John XXIII the Catholic Church made an act of faith in the precisely opposite idea [to resist the factual reality, and to deny the moral validity, of the historical development of man’s self-consciousness]: that the truth of Christianity needs for its health, protection and development the reality of man’s individual and cultural growth in self-consciousness. (27)
Individual Psychology will invite us to look to the individual and his behaviour, his goals and his life-style to discover any authentic living of the virtuous life. It is not as an addition to individual nature that faith has its effects but as an expression of the individual dynamic in community. The traditional notion of ‘having faith’ or ‘not having faith’ needs to be reconsidered. A subjective and affective view ought to be advanced and incorporated into our understanding. Then it is possible to accept a synthesis in the individual between the philosophical and theological expressions of the notions of faith. Until this synthesis is accomplished, an individual is likely to engage in a struggle that may compel him to abandon the act of faith in order to remain, what he perceives to be a healthy individual, in the modern world. But this need not necessarily be the case. “Grace given from above and faith found within oneself are identical for the one who has them; yet they seem to be separate entities as long as we cannot reach them.” (28) ‘Faith found within oneself’ is crucial for Adlerian understanding. While not attempting to cancel the intent of classical thought Adler suggests that modern man needs to recognize within himself a dynamic that strives for the same object that man has held throughout time. Each individual possesses an innate creative power in his nature. “Every human being brings the disposition for social interest with him; but then it must be developed through upbringing, especially through correct guidance of the creative power of the individual.” (29) Faith for Adlerians is the affective attitude shown in the individual’s concern for a healthy social interest. This goal of a healthy social interest inspires faith and in turn affects the condition of others in striving for the same goal.
However, from a theological point of view Adler did express some thoughts that were disconcerting. He has contributed to a better understanding of religious activity through his psychological insights but at one point in his writings he did make a prediction that scientific illumination will eventually replace religious faith. Jahn is correct when he classes Adler as an influential humanist and not a Christian psychologist. Religious faith is alive and will continue to live until it is replaced by this most profound insight and the religious feeling which stems from it. It will not be enough for man to taste of this insight; he will have to devour and digest it completely. (30)
I accept that there is no malice here. Rather Adler has replaced traditional understanding with principles from his own thought. Christianity understands that it is faith that urges the individual towards Christian community, whereas, guidance for the individual will point the way of solving problems. We can recognize this striving to accomplish the ‘not yet’ in social interest as inspiring Christian faith. In this case the Christian and the Individual Psychologist have the same purpose in mind. Now we must turn our attention to the virtue of hope and investigate its interconnectedness with faith thus leading us in turn to consider the virtue of charity.
Hope
Once again, I will appeal to Geach for an understanding of the virtue of hope. He relates the classical position when asserting that hope is authentically Christian when orientated to its object, God, in the person of Christ. “I shall try to show that any other hope, for individuals or for the human race, is quite unfounded.” he states. (31) I take this perspective represented by Geach to reflect the typical attitude Christian philosophers and theologians have had over the ages concerning the religious dimension of man’s life. I accept that Adler has presented us with the possibility of understanding our experiences in life, and in particular our religious experiences with a different set of tools, i.e. Individual Psychology. However, modern thought to the minds of some can be threatening. Indeed, it can provoke statements of denial and contradiction. In a critique of scientific thinking, Geach writes; Some people have seen this, and desperately look forward to a time when natural science will have progressed so far that we shall not need, in serious thinking, to talk of people’s word’s, opinions, plans and intentions, but only of physical and physiological states and events! (32)
This manner of thinking would seem to be set against Adler’s thought with respect to the religious experience in life. However, there is a point of agreement to be noted. It can be said that both Geach and Adler in their respective schools of thought see hope as eschatologically determined. Both see life as being understood as what we shall be in the future. Both understand the ideal of the future in the individual. As I understand them, both could assent to the following. “There is a consensus that God is a work in time, bearing with his world, and going before it, making present life intelligible, and filling with hope our present work, suffering, and dying through the future which he holds before us.” (33)
The only point of clarification needed is that for Adler God is to be understood as the goal of social interest. This future orientation of hope is what joins the philosopher and the psychologist in an individual attempting to articulate the virtue of hope. Eschatological understanding is at the basis of hope. Hope is exercised in the light of its future goal. The promises hidden in the future inspire in the present and orientate us to social interest.
According to a theology of hope articulated by Moltmann, hope does not attempt to construct an ideal picture of future events or conditions. Rather hope is a dynamic activity that leads the individual to understand the existing situation and lead him to effect some sort of transformation in his religious life. From an Adlerian perspective hope leads the individual to seek improvements in the ideal of social interest through his striving for the future. Adler understood the virtue of hope as something found in the idea of human progress. Something innate in the individual prompts striving for the future, for the good of the individual as well as, ultimately, the collective. His assumption about this positive thrust is recognized by theologians as the virtue of hope. Hope is social interest for Adler.
But social interest is continually pressing and growing. For this reason, no matter how dark the times may be, in the long-range view there is the assurance of the higher development of the individual and the group. Social interest is continually growing; human progress is a function of the higher development of social interest; therefore, human progress will be inevitable as long as mankind exists. (34)
This effect of hope is echoed by Charles Davis. Hope is not something we do without now, waiting for a future realization, but rather hope has its concrete effects in the present living moment. Davis devotes an entire chapter in his book to the subject of the Church and Hope. His conclusion of hope realized is that one obtains the life of Christ now. Like him, we prevail over every contrary force, including death. From an Adlerian perspective, this trusting assurance leads us to seek a greater participation in social interest as it is recognized to be a form of hope fulfilled. Theologically, our hope is rewarded. Brink suggests that Adler, linked hope and social interest so closely that, “According to Adler, once the faith in the future is gone, it becomes very difficult to maintain social interest and to obtain successful compensation.” (35) What we hope for comes to pass in time, but in the present it is an unrealized expectation. Those who live in hope, encourage each other, strengthen each other and affirm each other in life against hardships and seeming meaningfulness. The individual and community live in the expectation that their hopes will be realized. “Claims of interest in the well-being of the community, however, have power in the long run only if their professed accord with the general well-being finds confirmation.” (36)
From an Adlerian perspective hope leads the individual to seek improvement in the ideal of social interest through his striving for the future. For the Christian, there is a tension between the present and the future. This tension is the lived reality where experience and hope do not yet coincide. This accords with St. Paul’s teaching in Roman’s 8:24ff. Hope is future directed and its object is not yet accomplished. Otherwise, there would be no point in hoping. “For who hopes for what he sees? But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience,” as St. Paul expressed it. This is an important consideration in life. It is incumbent on the Christian to live ‘as if’ the future is realized in the present. This notion of ‘as if’ is significant in practicing Individual Psychology. This notion comes into prominence with Hans Vaihinger who presented the notion to the public in a work entitled, The Philosophy of As If in 1911.
Adler suggests exactly the same notion by his use of a psychological fiction. The fiction becomes a guiding principle for the individual. A guiding fiction is Adler’s way of showing how an individual comprehends his own striving for the future. It is the device or manner by which the individual seeks to release himself from a present moment of pain or inferiority. For Adler, the guiding fiction which the individual creates, need not necessarily conform to reality. In the Christian, the role of the guiding fiction is assumed by his belief in God. This is another example where the dynamic of the virtue of hope, like faith, operates in the believer and non-believer alike. “In order for the guiding fiction to be effective within its role, it is not necessary that its truth claims be valid.” (37)
Hope brings about a cure. It establishes a healthy life-style. What the biblical miracles record about change in the individual could be cast in Adlerian terms. At least this is the notion of Brink. “By accepting a new guiding fiction, these individuals were released from neurotic life-styles which had manifested themselves in terms of physical maladies.” (38) Adler will develop the notion that an individual needs to base his action on a fictional psychological order of his own creation. For this he must use the power innate in him as a member of the community. Having established this fictional base the individual will then act, “as if this world were real, true and good for all time.” (39) There is an element of risk in life and the dynamic relationship of the individual in community cannot sidestep this experience. Hope, psychologically speaking, offers no philosophical certainty but offers venture. He who lives in hope confidently lives as if he knows and is not subject to the criticism of credulity. It is to be recognized that this hope in the logical order and hope subsequently builds on faith. It is not unreasonable therefore to see that hope provides a type of assurance for the individual in his religious understanding of life. This understanding is compatible with Adlerian Psychology. Faith expressed in the individual’s desire to increase healthy social interest leads to modern man being able to understand and work with the dynamic of hope. A theology or life-style that fails to recognize this is not sufficient for modern man. As one author observed: “But if, on the other hand, a Christian theology functions to provide a sense of the direction of life, of its meaning and purpose (not a privileged solace or special knowledge of any sort) then, (I believe) a theology of hope will prove adequate for Christian needs.” (40)
Individual Psychology can provide an orientation that will give adequate meaning to an individual in his life-style so that the virtue of hope can be fully and healthily practiced. Adlerian psychology will see human development as future orientated and hence by nature an individual can be considered a creature of hope. The psychological movement of the individual aims at the goal of perfection. Adlerians see the individual who hopes as a product of evolution. At this point this view and that of classical theology come into conflict. While Individual psychology is correct in the affective assessment of the hoping individual, it may not be correct in considering the virtue as solely a product of evolution. The Christian will understand the virtue of hope as predicated of the believer. However, this is not the perspective of an Adlerian psychologist. He sees the dynamic of hope arising out of the new human condition.
It has taken unthinkably long time and it has required a large number of tentative attempts for us to recognize a satisfactory image, to experience the revelation of a supreme being who would lead one to the hope and belief of security for the species and the individual. (41) Adler’s understanding of Individual Psychology differs in description form classical theology when it comes to expression of the notion of hope but does not differ in intent. He understands that the ideal of social feeling is not made concrete in this life but is rather a goal to be striven after. In its final form, this goal posited by humanity at large inspires hope and those who direct their behaviour to attaining this goal are rightly adjusted. Hope then belongs to the health of the individual and the individual living and acting in despair could be considered as displaying neurotic behaviour. Hope gives meaning and purpose to life that prevents an unhealthy attitude from dominating the individual. Two authors accept the usefulness of Adler’s psychology as healthful. “The healthy practitioner finds his religion uplifting and motivating as far as the demands of action and work are concerned. The neurotic becomes hypnotized by a fictional life-plan.” (42)
In regard to the present activity, Adler consistently emphasized that mental health lies in responding appropriately to the task set before the individual and any given time...Kung emphasized Jesus’ insistence on caring For one’s neighbour, who is ‘anyone who needs me here and now’.... (43) Lack of interest in the social conditions, self-centeredness and isolation would all be earmarks of the despairing or neurotic person. By his principles and his insistence on seeing the individual in a communal setting Adler gives us tools to recognize a contemporary Christian dimension to modern behaviour. Life’s experience in the present can be interpreted as preparing the individual and the community for some future event. Adler’s own understanding parallels very closely the Christian virtue of hope.
This social feeling exists within us and endeavours to carry out its purpose; it does not seem strong enough to hold its own against all opposing forces. The justified expectation persists that in a far-off age, if mankind is given enough time, the power of social feeling will triumph over all that opposes it. (44) Having discussed faith and hope as virtues in the context of Adlerian psychology it remains to treat the virtue of charity to complete the trinity.
Charity
I will take, once more, Geach as a typical representative thinker in classical theological matters. He does express the traditional view that only certain characteristics can be predicated of both God and man alike - albeit to a varying degree. Not all virtues can be ascribed to God. That is, God cannot be thought of as being faithful or being hopeful as regards the future. This would imply a privation or deficiency on the part of God. This is not the case, however, with the virtue of charity. Justice and prudence which can be predicated of God depend on a world which is prudently planned and justly governed, “whereas charity or love is just what God eternally is, independently of any world made or to be made.” (45)
In developing Adler’s perspective, we need remember that he understood charity not as self-sacrifice but a development of one’s abilities for his own good and the good of others in community. Or put another way, charity means the striving to realize the ideal of social interest is healthy. A refusal to show interest here would not only be uncharitable according to Individual Psychology but neurotic as well. When we speak of virtue we mean that a person plays his part; when we speak of vice we mean that he interferes with co-operation. I can, moreover, point out that all that constitutes a failure is so because it obstructs social feeling, whether children, neurotics, criminals, or suicides are in question. (46)
A concept that Adler struggled with and in fact comes to reject is that love is not an extension to others of one’s natural self-concern. For him love is just that concern. In a description of the concept of charity found in St. John’s gospel, Moffat writes a paragraph with which Adler himself would have little quarrel. What he [John] generally means by the term is not a definite relation towards men and women so much as the sublimated sense of being part of the human whole; it denotes for him man’s general duty as a member of the race, an emotion and an idea due to the common humanity of man, as though to be humane and kind was the duty of a human creature as such. (47)
Adler will place himself outside the philosophical understanding of the virtue of charity as expressed by Geach. While agreeing with the intent of the following statement, Adler in his Individual Psychology approach would of necessity have to disagree with the vocabulary used to express that intent. Christian charity has to be love of people individually, not just general good will. So, let us foster such individual loves as we can and avoid hatred and malice; in Glory there will be all eternity to know and love those who will be our friends for ever because both we and they were God’s friends first. (48)
Logically, God does not precede social interest for Adler. Rather, God as an entity who has loved us first would be rejected in Individual Psychology. Adler would teach that the innate notion of social interest impels man to posit God as a goal. Charity and love arise out of the individual’s striving to meet that goal. But this goal is the ideal community, not the existing one. The community in the concrete is not sufficiently developed yet to provide the best of conditions for the individual. But the future one can - where charity and social interest prevail, that is. This accords with Jesus teaching and example. In one sense, Jesus focused his teaching in the here and now. Or at least, the early community recorded his teaching as such, given the accounts of scripture. Moffat acknowledges this when he writes, The hope of the kingdom was that such inward relationships to God would then become the law of human life; but, while Jesus was no mere futurist, he lived under the apocalyptic hope in such a way as to believe in the urgency of the new law for those who were the nucleus of the new order. (49)
Individual Psychology can illustrate and illumine one’s understanding beyond the above expression. Adler’s approach is able to be acknowledged as preferable in articulation of the philosophical expression of the virtue of charity. Christian charity intends to invite the followers of Jesus to forgive others. The intent here is not just to correct the disciple and have him abandon his evil ways and avoid doing harm to himself and others. This to me seems entirely compatible with Adler’s notion of the individual striving for social interest. For him it is essential for good health that the individual adapt his behaviour to the good of the community. What is good for the individual is good for the community from the perspective of Individual Psychology.
Our intention in acting charitably is to solve the problems of life. In solving the problems of others, we will solve our own problems too. Religion has tried to do this. But in fact often failed in attempting to do the best it could. Surely the commands, ‘thou shalt not kill’ and ‘Love thy neighbour’, can hardly ever disappear from knowledge and feeling as the supreme court of appeal. These and other norms of human social life, which are undoubtedly the products of evolution and are as native to humanity as breathing and the upright gait, can be embodied in the conception of an ideal human community, regarded here as the impulse and the goal of evolution. (50) Living charity requires that an individual involve himself with the community and the environment. Social feeling was meant to bring individuals together for the good of all concerned Adler often reminds us. An attitude that militates against this view would be uncharitable.
Individual Psychology has uncovered the fact that the deviations and failures of the human character - neurosis, psychosis, crime, drug addiction etc. - are nothing but forms of expression and symptoms of the striving for superiority directed against fellowmanship, which presents itself in one case as striving for power, in another case as an evasion of accomplishments by which another might benefit. (51)
He will discuss it under another heading, ‘From Hierarchical Orders to Free Organization’, but Charles Davis is concerned with the subject of community. A healthy community is a liberating community and his reaction to experiences within the Roman Catholic Communion were not healthy. He comes to the same conclusion as Adler in positing that human social life ought to be organized to promote unity and fellowship. Out of this will arise a common world of meaning and charity will be truly exercised. Adler will insist that social interest be developed from birth. The Christian can insist that charity be developed from birth within the context of Christian community. This notion of religious life and health in reciprocal relationship is not unknown before Adler. D.L. Weatherhead, to my view, has captured in his statement what Adler was attempting to understand in individual Psychology. We defined health, earlier in this book, as the harmonious relationship between every part of the self and Environment. Granted that man is a body, mind and spirit, his complete health necessitates a harmonious relationship between his spirit and its environment which we call God. (52)
Significantly he equates God and environment (Adler will call it Social Interest) and envisions the dynamic relationship between the two as healthy. To avoid the criticism of pantheism, it must be remembered that we are thinking in psychological terms not employing traditional philosophical notions. However, he correctly does not envision charity as exclusively a Christian virtue. Speaking of charity and brotherly love he says, “But these affections are certainly not mere derivatives of theism. We find them in Stoicism, in Hinduism, and in Buddhism in the highest possible degree. They harmonize with paternal theism beautifully....” (53)
CONCLUSION
This thesis began by reflecting on the fact of experience in modern man’s life. It was acknowledged that traditional ways of thinking about mankind and the world about him have become less and less satisfactory. Philosophical thinking is being replaced by psychological thought. This has its effects upon theological reflection. An investigation of the relationship between culture and belief illustrated that Newtonian and derivative views of thinking are being replaced by concepts more dialectical and less fixed that traditional philosophical concepts. Within psychology this has led to an intellectual approach that has had subsequent impact upon our theological concepts. Pastoral psychology has taken an interest in this recent way of thinking and I have attempted to contribute to that body of thought by considering the virtues of faith, hope and charity in the light of Adlerian principles. The suitability of Adler’s system has been demonstrated, I believe, with respect to enhancing the Christian life. On a practical pastoral level much may be done, with positive results, to promote Adlerian principles in ministry.
Faith, today, can be understood as a commitment arising out of our innate disposition to social interest. Faith traditionally has been considered to have “moved mountains” but today we can see its creative power released in the healthy individual living in community. Hope finds its realization today, not in some future idealized world, but in the present moment in the development of a higher social interest on the part of the individual. And charity, being a virtue, augments co-operation among individuals living in community. Given this context, I believe the perspective presented in this investigation is in keeping with orthodox Christianity and can be recommended pastorally to ministers and counselors.
ENDNOTES
1. Brown, L. B. Advances in the Psychology of Religion, Pergamon Press, Toronto, 1985, p. 54
2. Ansbacher, H. L. & R. R.. Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1956, p. 212
3. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Faber & Faber, London, 1943, p. 277
4. Flannery, A. P. Documents of Vatican II, Eerdman’s, Grand Rapids, 1975, p. 903
5. Adler, A. What Life Should Mean to You, Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1931, p. 12
6. Smith, W. C. Religious Diversity, Crossroad Press, New York, 1965, p. 9
7. Tanquery, A. The Spiritual Life, Desclee & Co., New York, 1930, p. 156
8. Ansbacher, H. L. & R. & R. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1956, p. 135
9. Hughson. S. C. With Christ in God, SPCK, London, 1950, p. 24
10. Hughson, S.C. With Christ in God, SPCK, London, 1950, p. 24
11. Ansbacher, H. L. & R. R. Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1956, p. 134
12. Hughson, S. C. With Christ in God, SPCK, London, 1950, p. 96
13. Ledermann, E. K. “A review of the principles of Adlerian Psychology”, in The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, vol. II, No. 3, p. 173
14. Ledermann, E. K. “A Review of the Principles of Adlerian Psychology”, in The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, vol. II, No. 3, p. 182
15. Dewart, L. The Future of Belief, Herder & Herder, New York, 1966, p. 134
16. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Faber & Faber, London, 1943, p. 269
17. Adler, A. What Life Should Mean To You, Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1931, p. 11
18. Adler, A. Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1964, p. 6
19. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 275
20. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 278
21. Dewart, L. The Future of Belief, Herder & Herder, New York, 1968, p. 64
22. Flannery, A. Documents of Vatican II, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1975, p. 173
23. McBrien, R. Ministry, Harper & Row, New York, 1987, p. 57
24. Tennant, F. R. The Nature of Belief, Centenary Press, London, 1943, p. 78
25. Geach, P. The Virtues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. viii, ix, x
26. Dewart, L. The Future of Belief, Herder & Herder, New York, 1968, p. 118
27. Dewart, L. The Future of Belief, Herder & Herder, New York, 1968, p. 172
28. Kunkel, F. In Search of Maturity, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1948. p. 240
29. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 40
30. Ansbacher, H. L. & R. R. Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1965, p. 462
31. Geach, P. The Virtues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. xii
32. Geach, P. The Virtues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. 49
33. Cousins, E. Hope and the Future of Man, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1972, p. 146
34. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 25
35. Brink, T. L. Journal of Psychology and Theology, Spring 1977, Vol. 5, #2, p. 147
36. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 27
37. Brink, T.L. Journal of Psychology and Theology, Spring 1977, vol. 5, #2, p. 146
38. Brink, T. L. Journal of Psychology and Theology, Spring 1977, Vol. 5, #2 p. 148
39. Becker, E. The Birth and Death of Meaning, Free Press of Glencoe, New York, 1962, p. 48
40. Muyskens, J. L. The Sufficiency of Hope, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1979, p. 140
41. Ansbacher, H. L. & Ansbacher, R. R. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1956, p. 461
42. Ansbacher, H. L. & Ansbacher, R. R. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1956, p. 461
43. Mansager, E. The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research and Practice, Vol. 43, #4 (Dec. 1987), p. 457
44. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Faber & Faber, London, 1943, p. 285
45. Geach, P. The Virtues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. xvi
46. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Faber & Faber, London, 1943, p. 283
47. Moffat, J. Love in the New Testament, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1929, p. 126
48. Geach, P. The Virtues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977, p. xviii
49. Moffat, J. Love in the New Testament, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1929, p. 109
50. Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Faber & Faber, London, 1943, p. 37
51. Adler, A. Superiority and Social Interest, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1964,
p. 39
52. Weatherhead, L. Psychology, Religion and Healing, Hodder &Stoughton, 1952, p. 453
53. James, W. The Varieties of Religious Experience, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1908,
p. 279
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THE FUTURE OF TRADITIONAL ECCLESIOLOGY
Originally published in Theandros: Online Journal of Orthodox Theology and Philosophy, 2008, Vol.6, n. 1
ABSTRACT
Options are needed in the institutional re-ordering of the Eastern and Western Church's ecclesiastical government. There is doubt that the traditional territorial schemata, that is, the status quo of the ecclesiastical understanding of the East and West can continue as the philosophical understanding that supports them evolves from a Hellenistic to a phenomenological perspective. In the future, the “architectural” form of ecclesiastical government most likely will be replaced by an “organic” form of ecclesial governance. The organic form of governance cannot be derived from any pre-existing philosophical or political principle. Organic governance, which is phenomenologically constituted, is based on the natural inclination of the faithful to remain together forming their ecclesial frameworks that are appropriate to the cultural, traditional and economic contexts of public life. Faith communities, will be constituted as living organisms that evolve. They will not be constructed as juridical philosophical or political structures, based on territory, that are meant to exist for all time. The organic church of the future will present the possibility for a new governance model of the faithful to meet its needs as constituted through a phenomenological philosophy, to meet just as the current architectural government was constructed through a classical (Hellenistic) philosophy to meet the needs of that time.
Contemporary theologians, both Eastern and Western, are beginning to realize that the traditional structure of church government must change. Alexander Bogolepov has accurately noted that for “practical considerations, ecclesiastical districts were established from the very beginning of the Christian era in conformity with the political division of the state: and under the Roman Empire, the Christian assembly became a state church” (Bogolopev, 1963:17). The present political governing apparatus, based on territorial notions, will be an impediment n the future to the ecclesial governance of the church since such territorial notions often do not conform to the lived, that is, existential social conditions of the faithful. Further, it would be a theological error if intellectually and scholarly informed theologians were to promote, in the name of philosophical evolution, the idea of a universal territorial super-church composed of all the faithful and based merely on the philosophical notions of humanity's universal existential context. We must remember that a universal humanity does not exist but that individual humans do. Thus, our humanity is expressed in a variety of philosophical, political and cultural patterns. In this brief essay, I discuss one contemporary philosophical perspective regarding the future of ecclesial governance in contrast to the current ecclesiastical government.
Since the inauguration of the modem era phenomenological, or continental philosophy, has slowly been replacing classical philosophy as the underpinning philosophy in many areas of civilized human advancement. The Church is one area of civilized advancement where this is occurring. As well, various other areas of civilized human populations, such as governmental, financial and societal, are entering into dialogue with each other on a global scale. It is to be noted that a phenomenological philosophy does not produced the same results as Westernized Hellenistic philosophy. Further, phenomenological philosophers and theologians are not encouraged to leave their ideological homeland, as it were, but, rather, are encouraged to engage existentially their specific cultures and demographic traditions and create a new meaningful philosophical understanding from their experience. However, some contemporary philosophers and theologians, both Eastern and Western, seem to prefer a return to a perceived golden era in scholastic philosophical and theological thinking. Thus, some Latin theologians are abandoning the phenomenological orientation introduced by Vatican II. And, in a similar manner, some Orthodox theologians seem to suffer from the same nostalgia for a philosophical golden age.
Certain local communities, which are culturally identifiable and unified with respect to their ecclesiology, may attempt to present themselves as universally valid models for all the faithful. This approach will fail in practice because a universal identity of the faithful cannot be that of a particular community. In fact, the collective faithful are churchless in identity. The fact is that individual communities of the faithful are culturally and particularly identifiable within an ecclesial (phenomenological) perspective. Further, one must remember that there are as many particular identities as there are cultural communities. Writing from a political perspective, Victor Segesvary lists particular identities that an individual may possess within a given culture. Such as, being a member of a cult, football club, or a literary circle. One individual may encompass all or only a few such identities. However, Segesvary notes, “an irresolvable problem comes only to the fore when one of the identities is a fundamentalist one, linked to an ethnic group or nation, to a religion, in sum, to a cultural community” (Segesvary, 2003:91). Thus. if one's ecclesiastical cultural identity is fundamentalist it presents an irresolvable problem.
Phenomenological philosophers and theologians do not accept that the Church universal can integrate the faithful by force or threat with reference to belief, as was done during the Spanish Inquisition, or compel participation in the government of the corporate body of the faithful. Nor can any universal government of the Church, through propaganda, create a religious solidarity among the faithful as a community with truly common interests. Rather, true religious solidarity is achieved through the faithful participating in the decisions about their own affairs in the local parochial and cultural context with a corresponding reduction in universal legislation governing them. Ecclesiastical government, as a hierarchical bureaucracy, is a totally impersonal way of handling and managing the affairs of the faithful. And, the current crisis in ecclesiastical government is of the type that characterizes all bureaucratically organized bodies.
In late modernity, technological advances have increased the opportunities for bureaucratic control over the faithful who live in a secular and Westernized culture. The Internet is a case in point. With the advent of the Internet a new ideology is in the process of being developed with the assistance of technological and digital advancement. Regretfully, at this point, it is a negative ideology in that the Internet is a de-personalizing forum since there is no need for physical, that is, embodied contact among the users of the Internet. For an insightful treatment of this development see Paul Doy1e’s. Analog People in a Digital World. Within the internet virtual community there is no possibility of a humanitarian incarnation such as is constitutive of real physical human relationships. Virtual reality is the simulated computerized version of real existence which presents many philosophical and theological challenges to our incarnated humanity. But, the notion that the virtual world, that is virtual reality, is a reality to which only humans have access, Dewart suggests needs to be expanded and refined (Dewart, 2016:392). To my mind, a digital experience cannot support any true human society or community since the simulation by the virtual decision-makers is not the same as the lived experience of true reality. With reference to ecclesiastical government, virtual reality, mediated through the ideology of the Internet, creates incompetent, that is, non-humanized, non-incarnated, identities. This lack of competent, that is, incarnated and humanized identities, or personnel formed merely within the virtual reality of the ideology of the Internet, subsequently creates a lack of competence for the Church's governing structure. It is for this reason, then, that any ambition on the part of philosophers and theologians for government by a church universal, brought about solely by a technological and digital means, should be abandoned as truly unrealistic.
Ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic traditions are transnational ideologies. Of necessity there will be conflicts among groups of the faithful, i.e., parishes and local churches, confessing to these particular ideologies. When cultural variety is ignored, as is the case in our present historical and political context, expectations about a global union of churches, patterned after a world civil government. seems logical to philosophers and theologians. Note that I say, “union,” not “unity.” In our present circumstances, were this global union to come about the governmental apparatus of the churches would resemble the Western cultural and religious pattern. Our problem, in the governance of the Churches, is that Western cultural education, technologically driven, has given us specialized knowledge about the world. This specialized knowledge, however, lacks an encompassing view of the world. Bits of information from contemporary science and technology can only become knowledge after an individual mentally processes them to produce a coherent whole, or an holistic unity. Further, since individual bits of information do not constitute this holistic unity, or knowledge, a world union of churches would lack the shared beliefs, values, symbols, language, history and customs that make up the various global human and Christian communities. Segesvary reminds us that humanity “as a community is too big an entity to be the bearer of a shared culture, and every culture, since time immemorial, has had to have a community as its bearer. In this respect, our world is not different from the ancient worlds. although we took the bad habit of believing that modernity is different from everything. which preceded it that modern man is an exceptional gift of biological evolution to the universe” (Segesvary 2003:99).
A universal governing ideology cannot be constructed phenomenologically. Phenomenologically, an understanding of others, their civilizations, and ways of life is to be constituted (organized) through dialogue without prejudicially preconceived ideas and without the presumed superiority of the Western philosophical and theological tradition. Our common human biological origin suggests to many philosophical and theological thinkers the need of a humanitarian universalism among human beings. Victory Segesvary (2003:100) notes: “Universalism is a millennia-old dream of humanity from the Stoics through the medieval Church down to modem ideologies like Marxism and liberalism.” It should be remembered however, that universalism is not universality. Universalism is the scholastic philosophical term, whereas universality is the phenomenological philosophical term. Thus, normative universalism would be an ideology which declares that the particular moral and ethical principles arising within a culture, from a specific civilization, should be the universal moral and ethical principles applicable to all peoples and in all times. The fact is, however, that normative universalism would be only the reflection of a local community. In contrast, for the purposes of future ecclesial governance, what is needed is a humanitarian universality that is holistically constituted and based on a common organic, not architectural origin.
The foregoing leads me to this conclusion. From its present status quo. the government of the Church, both Eastern and Western, must move from a classical philosophical ecclesiastical methodology (architectural) to a phenomenological philosophical ecclesial methodology (organic) in constituting its governing apparatus. The main obstacles to an organic church governance are the various architecturally constructed civic ideologies that determine modem individualistic cultures. Territorialism, not territoriality, is an architecturally constructed civic ideology with its roots in classical Hellenistic philosophy. By way of contrast, territoriality, has its roots in phenomenological philosophy. The same is true for the notions of Catholicism and Catholicity, nationalism and nationality, historicism and historicity, humanism and humanity, communism and community, etc. The territoriality of a community encompasses an understanding which embraces more than its mere physical location. In adopting a phenomenological methodology with respect to governance dioceses in the future will not be determined by territorialism, but constituted by territoriality. That is, they will be constituted through an experience of residence in a given space on the earth. The experience of residence in this space will constitute a diocesan framework of organic governance, replacing the architectural government that presently exists. Since dioceses will be constituted out of an experiential cultural framework, that is, not dependent on physical or political territory, their governors will lay claim to a limited sovereignty based on an existential understanding of experience and will not be bound by a theoretical or political understanding of civil territory.
In the future, we can expect that multilateralism, as opposed to unilateralism, among the dioceses will become the normative principle. As this happens, the question arises, could communities lose their role if they are unembedded territorially? I suggest that the answer is, “no.” Multilateral communities will be constituted non-spatially and non-territorially, that is, phenomenologically. Such phenomenologically constituted communities will be reinforced by humanitarian communicative technologies, or organizations, which will depend, unlike the Internet, on embodied relationships. The development of multilateral communities suggests that the cultural problems of religion, language, education, administration, etc., could be resolved within an ecclesial community that eliminated the idea of national sovereignty. I suggest that in a new order of organic church governance, co-ordination and cooperation would replace the concept of sovereignty or centralization, which would no longer be needed. This would be so since the ecclesial principle of subsidiarity places the power of decision-making in the hands of those affected by the decision-making process. In contrast, sovereign or centralized bureaucracies take power away from those affected by the decision-making process. To act locally and link up globally demonstrate the dynamic of an organic non-territorial ecclesial order, that is, an order of governance, not government.
I speculate that in the future there will be no universal canon law, but only regional particular canon laws. In a phenomenologically constituted community the constitution of canon law will be self-regulating as it emerges from public and private experience through discussions undertaken by the faithful. In the future, it is likely that there will be no sanctions in canon law but only suggestions for remedial action. That is to say, the constitution of canon law will be such that laws will not be not in conflict with one another but, rather, be corrective of personal and corporate behaviour.
In this essay I have suggested that a phenomenologically understood ecclesial community reflects a new ecclesiology that is based on knowledge of others' experience and suffrage, not on mere territory. And, the organic governance option for the future, in contrast to the present architectural structure, calls for a new ecclesiology, not territorially re-ordered but, phenomenologically constituted,
Works Cited
Bogolepov, Alexander. Toward an American Orthodox Church: The Establishment of an Autocephalous Orthodox Church, (New York: Morehouse-Barlow, 1963),
Doyle, Paul. Analog People in a Digital World, (Winnipeg, MB: artbookbindery.com, 2006).
Dewart, Leslie. Hume’s Challenge and the Renewal of Modern Philosophy, Pennsauken, MJ: bookbaby.co m, 2016).
Segesvary, Victor. World State, Nation States, or Non-centralized Institutions? A Vision of the Future in Politics, (Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 2003).
ALFRED ADLER'S SOCIAL INTEREST: A HOLISTIC SOCIAL INTEREST (A HOLISTIC PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY [1])
(Originally published in EXPLORATIONS: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 1998, Vol.16, n. 3, pp. 45-52)
I write as a theologian who encourages, with appropriate adaptation, the Individual Psychology (IP) of Alfred Adler as a pastoral tool for Christian practice. Although never formally trained in Adlerian psychology, I recognize through hindsight that I have employed the “common sense” approach to living reflected in Adlerian psychology in my pastoral practice over the last twenty years or so. Adler's common sense approach to living is set out in his theory of Social Interest (SI). The German term for SI is Gemeinschaftsgefühl SI refers to a feeling of belonging, of being accepted within a community. Further, I argue that SI constitutes and distinguishes our human nature such that SI is more than mere civil association. SI reveals a transcendental understanding in its more developed stages (Alfred Adler Institute of San Francisco, 1997a). This transcendental understanding invites an individual to future spiritual development. On the web site of the Alfred Adler Institute of San Francisco, Stein and Edwards (1997) write: “Adler believed that the ultimate purpose of psychotherapy was to help people contribute to the social evolution of mankind. Müller added a spiritual element to this idea. He suggested that a human being's mission in life was to work in partnership with God to complete an unfinished world (Müller 1992)”. Adler's understanding of SI, appropriately adapted, is a highly effective tool at the “...level of preventive rather than corrective intervention” (Bishop 1989: 155).
From my experience, the classical approach to understanding meaning and purpose in human life (i.e., philosophy) as a tool to address life's tasks in western society is often pastora11y ineffective. To my mind, the classical understanding is out of context and renders our life in western society somewhat anxiety-ridden. Classical philosophy fails to work in the contemporary western pastoral approach. A contemporary psychology is needed to replace classical philosophy in pastoral counselling. In my pastoral counselling, I abandon classical understanding in favour of a holistic understanding. Holistic understanding, as a non-classical theory, claims that a living organism “... has a reality other and greater than the sum of its constituent parts” (Funk & Wagnalls Canadian College Dictionary, 1989). Ellison and Smith (1991:3 5), state that “holistic conceptions of healthy personality and functioning are an integral part of the personality theories of Adler, Allport, Maslow, and Rogers ....” Adler’s holistic theory is “... intimately connected to humanistic philosophy of living (Alfred Adler Institute of San Francisco, 1997). It is this connection to philosophy that makes Adlerian IP a desirable pastoral tool.
Gladson and Lucas (1989) suggest that since Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung seem overworked with respect to psychological and religious themes, new ground might be explored in the psychologies of Viktor Frankl and Alfred Adler. I write to explore Adler’s notions and to encourage his way of thinking in pastoral practice. My conclusions are tentative and subject to refinement. In my approach, I hope to be faithful to Adler's pioneering intention and break new ground (O'Connell 1997: 114).
Adlerian SI reflects a holistic psychology [2]
Adler’s SI is friendly towards a religious thinking and through a holistic approach provides the Christian pastor with a new way of pastoral understanding. Alfred Adler, Jewish born, converted to Protestantism in later life but not out of religious conviction (Hoffman 1994). Even so, Hoffman notes that Adler collaborated with the Lutheran pastor, Ernest Jahn, in a religious work entitled, Religion and Individual Psychology. However, Adler himself remained independent and neutral “... as towards the efforts of Catholic or Protestant psychologists to combine [his] views with religious doctrine” (Hoffman 1994: 194). Many of Adler’s ideas are useful to a Christian pastoral understanding but psychologists are loathe to discuss them (Mosak & Dreikurs, 1967).
Roman Catholicism offers a particular pastoral context to practice this new way of pastoral understanding. Adler’s SI is shaped through participation in life and not merely by the observation of life. Therefore, it is an existential psychology. Roman Catholic philosophical thought has tended to officially oppose existential psychological thinking (Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris). This papal teaching has continued the tension in pastoral practice between some forms of psychological understanding and classical theology. Aeterni Patris is not intended for our time. Thus, applying its principles in the contemporary western context fails because the encyclical was the Roman Church's inverted response to “... a culture that needed to deal not with the startling discovery of the works of Aristotle, but with the rise of empirical science” (Liderbach 1997:41). According to Bishop (1989:151): “The church's attitude toward and treatment of psychological issues has waxed and waned from acceptance to rejection since the time of Augustine.” Officially. Roman Catholic pastors are to follow ways of pastoral counselling (i.e., resolving psychological issues) with principles which are based on classical understanding. This is problematic since classical understanding is often not attuned to contemporary psychological experience. The solution is to seek new ways of pastoral understanding. Adler's existential psychology is among those non-scholastic holistic interpretive systems acceptable within the contemporary Roman Catholic pastoral context. Some reasons for this I discuss below.
1st Reason:
The first reason for pastors to accept SI as a counselling tool is Adler's novel understanding of individuality. His understanding fits with contemporary western understanding. In lP, “individuality” is not to be confused with “individualism.” The latter is concerned with a distinct theory or doctrinal system which suggests a classical way of thinking; whereas the former is concerned with one’s state, condition or quality of life which suggests a phenomenological and holistic way of thinking. O’Connell suggests a variant understanding and speaks of Adler’s psychology as promoting the “individuated” person rather than the “individual” person. He states that “individuated psychology is in need of a deep eternal Self as well as broad social concerns” (O’Connell 1997:114). This deep eternal Self and its broad social concerns suggest a holistic approach to the Christian pastor.
2nd Reason:
Classical understanding is not all effective pastoral tool since it does not correspond to contemporary experience. Its principles are rooted in a world that no longer exists experientially. Adlerian understanding does correspond to contemporary experience and this is the second reason why I accept Adlerian thinking. Contemporary western Christians do not live in a classical world. Classical philosophy is often of little value to individuals in coping with their day to day life tasks. I am not the first. nor indeed the last, to recognize that classical philosophy is no longer adequate for the contemporary context. I offer the following example.
In an attempt to show that classical understanding was indeed adequate for contemporary understanding William James wrote The Varieties of Religious Experience. What resulted. however, was the realization on his part that psychology was better suited than philosophy to religious understanding in modem times. James concludes: “Philosophy in this sphere [ of religious understanding] is thus a secondary function, unable to warrant faith’s veracity…. In all sad sincerity, I think we must conclude that the attempt to demonstrate by purely intellectual processes the truth of the deliverances of direct religious experience is absolutely hopeless” (James 1908:455).
James and Adler overlap in certain aspects in their holistic understanding. Religious belief for James, results in demonstrable characteristics which constitute the life style of an individual He describes each characteristic as a “state of assurance”. He lists them as: 1) “the loss of all the worry, the sense that all is ultimately well,” 2) “the sense of perceiving truths not known before,” and 3) “the objective change which the world often appears to undergo” (James 1908:248). He admits that these states, arising from experience, are difficult to understand by one lacking the experience. Adler recognizes these same states in a healthy individual given to increasing SI. Both thinkers accept a holistic understanding in which the individual is greater than the immediate conscious experience of the self. In the “state of assurance” James finds that we can achieve union with something greater than ourselves. Within this union, we find great peace. Adler understands this to be a purpose of religion. It is one of the things religion does best for the individual from Adler' s point of view.
Adler explicates his holistic understanding in Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind. “The best conception hitherto gained for the elevation of humanity is the idea of God.... The primal energy which was so effective in establishing regulative religious goals was none other than that of social feeling” [my italics] (Adler 1943: 272/273). Regulative religious goals are but an early Adlerian understanding of a holistic pastoral psychology. By way of understanding regulative religious goals the pastor guides parishioners to a new and healthy understanding in life. This is a preventative approach to life’s tasks.
Within contemporary western theological understanding we may say that “psychology respects grace” meaning that pastoral psychology can reveal a graced understanding, an understanding greater than mere humanistic psychology can reveal Thus, theologians speak of “graced understanding.” Müller’s (1992) work, You shall be a blessing: Main traits of a religious humanism, sheds some light on graced understanding. In this work, Müller opens Adler’s IP to a transcendental interpretation.
3rd Reason:
In secular (humanist) psychologies religious understanding of life is seen to require corrective intervention. [3] This is not so in Adlerian understanding. This is my third reason for accepting his thinking. The pastors struggle is to account in contemporary psychological terms for religious understanding (Bishop 1989). All too often, in the dominant secular culture of the West, to account for a religious understanding of life in psychological terms is seen as something negative, as a crisis to be overcome or solved in one's life.
To a great degree this understanding of corrective intervention is a legacy of Freud’s influence in The Future of the Illusion. An alternative understanding given by Sorenson (1990) counters Freud's negative position. In Sorenson’s view the struggle to express a religious understanding of life in psychological terms is understood as a positive experience, that is to say, as preventive intervention, not corrective intervention. Preventive intervention comprises part of the normal stages of growth and development of each individual (McMinn & Lebold 1989). Preventive intervention, based on an Adlerian understanding constitutes a holistic understanding.
Adlerian SI reflects holistic pastoral psychology
The purpose of pastoral psychology is to address important life tasks for the betterment of the individual. In attempting to achieve this purpose, SI and pastoral psychology overlap and are complementary. What needs to be distinguished is the way in which each assists the individual to a healthy and fulfilling life. Or, as Adler phrases it: “We approach the problem from a different angle but the goal is the same-to increase interest in others” (Adler 1931: 12). Alfred Adler’s system of psychological understanding stressing the importance of an individual is positive nurturing within the environment. A purpose of pastoral psychology is positive nurturing. Initially, Adler’s thinking was intended to enable those who were emotionally disabled. Stein and Edwards (1997) explain: “The goal of therapy is to increase the feeling of community, promote a feeling of equality, and replace egocentric self– protection, self–enhancement, and self–indulgence with self–transcending, courageous, social contribution.” For personal (individual) well-being, emotions which in Adlerian thinking fuel behaviour are to be properly understood and regulated. In this way, an individual attains health and becomes useful within a society (community).
SI consists of basic orientations which are pastorally sympathetic to a Christian perspective on life. Two of these orientations may briefly be summarized as follows: 1) all important life problems are social, that is. they beset the individual in a social context; 2) health is attained by the individual in a set of harmonious social relationships. These notions set a psychological context for a Christian pastoral understanding in the modern world. Since Adler’s SI is easily understood religiously and theologically, it is readily recognizable as an appropriate pastoral tool for the benefit of the Christian community. As such SI opens the way to preventive intervention rather than corrective intervention within pastoral counselling.
Health and well-being are fundamental to the Christian life and can be, to a great extent, attained through harmonious social relationships. The Christian life style, an attitude seeking health and preventing illness (physical and spiritual), must be lived out in community. This explains why Christians often understand their churches and fellowship groups as communities of health and well-being. In the past, the pastoral way of thinking has tended to view health and well-being within a classical perspective. The classical understanding is no doubt due to the persistent reliance on classical Greek thinking typified by Plato and Aristotle. In this realm of thought reality is considered fixed and unchanging, and lived experience is somehow a shadow of reality. Adler criticises this static way of thinking: “The human spirit is only too well accustomed to reduce everything that is in flux to a form, to consider it not as movement but as frozen movement–movement that has become form” (Adler 1943:269). While this is an acceptable interpretation in a classical school of thought, it is not an acceptable interpretation within Christian theology or Christian psychology rooted in contemporary experience. A static interpretation does not reflect contemporary experience. What reflects contemporary experience is a holistic pastoral psychology which incorporates Alfred Adler’s SI.
Bv way of conclusion
From a pastoral point of view, Alfred Adler’s SI as preventive intervention may be effectively incorporated into Christian praxis. Adler’s contribution to pastoral theology is through his SI which enables an individual to achieve a fulfilled and integrated life within a social context (community). For Christians, the social context is the church, the believing community.
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Steffi, H & Edwards, M 1997. “Classical Adlerian theory and practice,” in Marcus, P. & Rosenberg, A (eds), Psychoanalytic versions of the human condition and clinical practice [1996] Forthcoming. (http://www.behavior.mt/orgsladler/principl.html)
NOTES
[1] I understand this term within an exclusively Christian context, in that a pastor “...is one of the gifts to the church (Eph. 4: 11).” (Douglas, Elwell & Toon 1989).
[2] I understand “holism” as pertaining to recognizing one's relationship/ connectedness with the entire cosmos: whereas “wholism,” I understand as pertaining to the operation of an integral unit within a whole. See Frost (1997:68).
[3] A historian of American political thought, Gregory S. Butler, notes a shift in this understanding. He writes: “Over the past several decades, our understanding of modernity has been profoundly changed. This change has occurred as a result of a body of critical scholarship that challenges the widely-held notion that the modem world is characterized primarily by the triumph of secular rationalism and the steadily declining influence of religion and spirituality” (Butler 1997:37). Further, Michael McAteer, writing in the newspaper of the Anglican Church of Canada, quotes Gregory Baum: “We are witnessing a worldwide return of religion to the public sphere, both on the right and on the left” (McAteer 1997:10).
PHENOMENOLOGY WITHOUT RELIGIOUS MOTIVES:
THE PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT OF ADLER'S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
(Originally published in the Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology: October 2002: Vol. 32, 1 &2.)
“Since Individual Psychology is not interested in the verbal expression of feelings, but only in the intensity of the movement by which they are expressed, it will evaluate the members of various religions not by the way they represent their feelings, but by the movement of the whole individual follower, i.e. by their fruits. That these fruits must be recognised sub specie aeternitatis may be said parenthetically. Individual Psychology does not deny that the religions with their powers, their church institutions, their influence on school and education, have a strong advantage. It will be satisfied in the practical application of its science to protect and further the sacred good of ‘brotherly love where the religions have lost their influence’” (Alfred Adler). 1
Existentialism: A philosophical current started in the past century by the Dane, Søren Kierkegaard, and developed by recent scholars (Heidegger, Jaspers, Marcel, Abbagnano) in a variety of interpretations and connotations. For Kierkegaard (a Protestant) the tragic discovery of this real existence resolves itself in an appeal to the supernatural and, what is more, to an appeal without further ado to Christianity; but the other existentialists have eliminated this religious motive in order to stand aside in the problematicity of life and thought, and be free from the worries of definitive solutions. (Emphasis in original) 2
This essay has several aims. First, it intends to show that Adler was a product of one of the philosophical systems of the time, namely, German existentialism. Slavik (1997) discusses the existential aspect of Adler’s thinking as a “contextual philosophy.” Such contextual philosophy is determined by the events constituting the individual’s life. Second, phenomenological philosophy throws light on Adler’s Individual Psychology and this takes his work out of its German context as it addresses itself to individual experience. Third, the religious roots of existentialism are a strength, not a liability, in understanding the human condition and ought not to be forgotten by Adlerian psychologists.
Phenomenological Development
Jellema (1963) wrote that we are witnessing “the emergence of a new ‘mind,’ radically different in approach from the ‘modern mind,’ and already viewing the ‘obvious’ notion of Reality previously held as something antiquated and alien” (p. 81). I suggest Adler and his Individual Psychology is an example of this new radically different mind that attempts to understand experience without the assistance of previously held notions. In short, I suggest that Adler is a phenomenological thinker. Further, Lowe (1982) observes: “We are so accustomed to philosophizing from an extrinsic standpoint, whether Cartesian or Platonic, that we can no longer comprehend the phenomenological standpoint within the world” (p. 165). Adler's Individual Psychology helps us to de-familiarize ourselves with Cartesian and Platonic thought forms and introduces a phenomenological approach.
In classical thinking, theoretical questions and answers are governed by a fixed idea of nature. Moreover, truth expressed in theoretical terms has become fixed in a particular form of expression that itself is perceived to be as valid as the truth. Researchers, not aware of this aberration whereby the means have become idealized ends (goals), make interpretive mistakes. Adler's Individual Psychology presents a philosophical solution. Adler's phenomenological “non-fixity” in understanding helps us avoid the interpretive mistakes of idealistic philosophers. In phenomenological interpretation, existence is understood as becoming, unity is understood as relational and necessity is replaced by option. These notions are easily recognizable in Adler's Individual Psychology.
As Western culture continues to evolve, traditional conceptualisation becomes increasingly less helpful. Skolimowski (1973), after an expose of the limitations of conventional descriptions, offers his understanding of a new knowledge. He discusses phenomenological knowledge. “What we are seeking, without perhaps being fully aware of it, is not so much improved science, or more science, but a different idiom for living, a different idiom for our interaction with nature and cosmos” (p. 36).
Phenomenological thinking, which is existential understanding about human experience, underscores Adler's thought. Contemporary thinking has developed independently and, in many cases, in opposition to classical philosophy and theology (Kroner, 1951). Development is continually taking place, and the Western hermeneutic is seeking to end its “cultural provincialism” and provide a new threshold of interpretation (Tracy, 1988, p. 56). In short, we cannot live with fossilized thresholds. Adler’s Individual Psychology assists in ending this “cultural provincialism.”
Theoretical scientific understanding originated with the philosophers who lived prior to Plato and Aristotle. They prepared the way for phenomenological interpretation. Murray (1940) writes:
The early philosophers of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. were more like men of science with a strong taste for generalization. Their problems were concerned with the physical world: they made researches in geometry, geography, medicine, astronomy, natural history and were apt to sum up their conclusions in sweeping apothegms….. Socrates, the father of the Attic school of philosophy, turning away from natural science with its crude generalizations, concentrated his attention on man, and particularly on the analysis of ordinary speech and current ideas (p. 36).
Adler also “concentrated his attention on man” in his Individual Psychology which is articulated by way of a phenomenological approach to life. Adler's Individual Psychology constructs eidetic objects. Eidetic objects have no extra-mental existence, ideal or otherwise (Ryba, 1991). These fictions, or eidetic notions, evoke a movement in an individual that is capable of study according to Adler's Individual Psychology.
Traditional Western analytical interpretation maintains that there must be some cause existing independently behind all effects. Discussing modern developments in the cognitive sciences, Searle (1984) points out an assumption within rationalist thinking which many find no longer tests as true. This assumption “goes as far back as Leibnitz and probably as far as Plato. It is the assumption that a mental achievement must have theoretical causes” (p. 45). However, this is not so with Adler's Individual Psychology. Adler does not rely on classical understanding. Rather, Adler's phenomenological interpretation suggests a direction in which human development may occur.
Since Adler's thinking is not determined by pre-existing theoretical causes it presents as a new threshold of understanding. Individual Psychology, as a phenomenological methodology, possesses no past or future that concretely exists; there is only the perpetual present moment of existence that is susceptible to interpretation. However, the present moment (movement) is not divorced from the past but, rather, has evolved from it (Sokolowski, 1974). Bloom (1987) cites such evolutionary development in Descartes' thought: "Descartes had a whole wonderful world of old beliefs, of prescientific experience and articulations of the order of things, beliefs firmly and evenly fanatically held, before he even began his systematic and radical doubt" (p. 42).
As well, Bloom (1987) notes that Heidegger turned to pre-Socratic thought forms in developing his ideas.
A new beginning was imperative, and he turned with open mind to the ancients. But he did not focus on Plato or Aristotle.... Heidegger was drawn instead to the pre-Socratic philosophers, from whom he hoped to discover another understanding of being to help him replace the exhausted one inherited from Plato and Aristotle, which he and Nietzsche thought to be at the root of both Christianity and modem science (p. 310).
According to Ferguson (1992), Stephen Hawking thinks similarly. He “doesn't hesitate to admit that an earlier conclusion was incorrect or incomplete. That's the way his science–and perhaps all good science–advances, and one of the reasons why physics seems so full of paradoxes” (p. 122).
Finally, Dewart (1989) notes a similar evolutionary development occurring in phenomenological thinking. He writes: “The phenomenological method...is not the diametric opposite of the ontological; it is a more comprehensive one than the latter, whose merits it preserves and whose inadequacies it tries to remedy” (p. 31). Adler's Individual psychology is a phenomenological undertaking which returns to the individual’s experience in much the same manner as Heidegger returned to the pre-Socratic philosophers.
Phenomenological Thresholds in Adler's Individual Psychology
Specifically, in his Individual Psychology, Adler moved towards phenomenology in two important ways: first, in Individual Psychology, the idea of a fixed, objective interpretation of events moves to that of continual interpretation; second, a classical epistemology of knowing moves to a phenomenology of being.
Fixed interpretation moves to continual interpretation
To engage in phenomenological interpretation is a challenging task. Don Ihde (1977) offers advice that applies to Adler’s Individual Psychology.
When one first learns a discipline, one must also learn a ‘tribal language.’ In philosophy, those who read Kant for the first time, or Leibnitz, or even Nietzsche, may find words being used in a different and often technical way.... But if a discipline is to be mastered, the technical language simply must be learned. That is as true of sciences, logic, alternate styles of philosophy as it is of phenomenology (p. 19).
The present movement from fixed to continual interpretation within Western theological thinking arises partly from the attempts at reconciling contemporary interpretation and traditional understanding. Adler’s Individual Psychology is an example of this shift occurring in psychology.
Tamas (1991), referring to postmodern development, suggests that an additional evolutionary phase of understanding is “bringing a new form of civilization and a new world view with principles and ideals fundamentally different from those that have impelled the modem world through its dramatic trajectory” (p. 410). Adler's Individual Psychology is all about inclusion in this new dramatic trajectory.
Kant’s creative thinking introduced a new philosophical understanding about intelligible categories. They exist but are not perceptible. This notion is reflected within Adler’s Individual Psychology. A phenomenological threshold does disclose something new; it does not simply present variations of previous interpretation. What is new is the interpretation of existing, non-perceptible relationships. New methods of interpretation are conceived and new questions requiring further innovative resolutions arise in Adler’s Individual Psychology.
Specific cultures provide a threshold of interpretation in which phenomenological understanding is continually constructed and reconstructed. History shows that those thresholds that die out have not exhausted their meaning. Rather, other thresholds, which are more suitably adapted to a specific cultural understanding, have become accepted. Young (1988) shows how culturally suitable ones have replaced unsuitable psychotherapeutic methodologies in Western culture. Adler’s Individual Psychology can be classed among the culturally suitable ones.
A classical epistemology of knowing moves to a phenomenology of being
As the scholastic thinker requires a secure grasp of idealistic thought and presumptions, so the phenomenological thinker requires a secure grasp of phenomenological understanding and presumptions. Two phenomenological philosophical presumptions contributing to this essay are that:
• knowing is actualised in existential consciousness. It is not an act of intellectual apprehension of theoretical structures.
• unity is actualised in a conscious awareness of dialectical relationships rather than through an intellectual conformation to ideal categories.
Both presumptions are evident within Adler’s Individual Psychology.
Classical knowledge is structured upon theoretical concepts which themselves are structured upon previous concepts (Hodges, 1979; Watts & Williams, 1988). Classical knowledge consists of theoretical interpretations, which are theoretical interpretations of theoretical interpretations ad infinitum. Phenomenological knowledge differs from classical knowledge in that conscious (intended) understanding is constituted out of the present moment of being (existence). Noetic concepts are not revisions or refinements of ideal concepts but are actualisations of the present moment of being. The old schema of theoretical knowledge is not perpetuated nor preserved in a phenomenological epistemology. Within this line of thought, Von Bertalanffy’s discussion of the re-orientation to systems thought, a movement from idealistic thinking to noetic thinking, continues Adler’s approach within Individual Psychology. Von Bertalanffy (1968) writes:
Such a new ‘image of man,’ replacing the robot concept by that of system, emphasizing immanent activity instead of outer-directed activity ... should lead to a basic reevaluation of problems of education, training, psychotherapy and human attitudes in general (p. 194).
Adler’s Individual Psychology, which constructs (actualises) noetic concepts, reveals a phenomenological philosophy that structures new thresholds of interpretation. Streng (1991) states: “The act of giving value is perceived as an ontological act because it determines the manner in which one recognizes and thereby ‘actualizes’ one’s existence” (p. 8). This is the basis of Adler’s Individual Psychology.
The phenomenological view does not necessarily conform to with any given system of knowledge. In a phenomenology of being, the boundaries of a relational state are not fixed. In a phenomenology of being one must think in terms of subjectivity and objectivity rather than in terms of subjectivism and objectivism. Subjectivism and objectivism denote a specific doctrine or system of knowledge, whereas subjectivity and objectivity are notions connoting a phenomenological and personal view of the life-world. To exclude subjective understanding and rely only on objective (ideal) understanding would be a phenomenological philosophical error according to Searle (1984). Because of this subjective approach, Darroch and Silvers (1982) suggest that an author’s biography be incorporated into any interpretation of experience. Adler’s life experience, articulated at the threshold of existentialism, provided the context out of which his Individual Psychology developed.
This essay began by situating Adler’s thinking in the philosophical context of German existentialism. To close, I quote the opening paragraph of The Quest of the Historical Jesus and invite the reader to ponder its content with respect to the philosophical context of Adler’s Individual Psychology. Schweitzer (1910) writes:
When, at some future day, our period of civilization shall lie, closed and completed, before the eyes of later generations, German theology will stand out as a great, a unique phenomenon in the mental and spiritual life of our time. For nowhere save in the German temperament can there be found in the same perfection the living complex of conditions and factors—of philosophic thought, critical acumen, historical insight, and religious feeling—without which no deep theology is possible (p. 1).
NOTES
1. Cited in Rom, P. (1977). “We knew Alfred Adler.” Individual Psychology Pamphlets (No. 2). London: The Adlerian Society of Great Britain, p. 10.
2. Parente, P., Piolanti, A., & Garofalo, S. (1951). Dictionary of dogmatic theology. Milwaukee: Bruce. s v “Existentialism.”
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Social Interest in the Thinking of HRH The Prince of Wales
(Originally published in The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, (1999, Vol. 29, n.2. pp. 38–48))
Abstract
The Prince of Wales is a visionary thinker. The Adlerian fifth life task is reflected in his visionary thinking. He seeks to discern meaning in life through the tasks of individual and collective stewardship and spiritual leadership. His vision has the potential to place him among the foremost promoters of social interest in Western culture as it enters the next millennium. In tune with the times, HRH The Prince of Wales will most likely make a positive social contribution to his country and the world. His personal spiritual journey, interpreted in terms of Adlerian principles, suggests this.
I have written elsewhere (Savage, 1998) concerning Adler’s Social Interest (SI) and its usefulness in the contemporary context. Adler’s common sense approach to living is set out in his theory of Social Interest (SI). "SI refers to a feeling of belonging, of being accepted within a community. Further, I argue that SI constitutes and distinguishes our human nature such that SI is more than mere civil association. SI reveals a transcendental understanding in its more developed stages…. This transcendental understanding invites an individual to future spiritual development." (p. 43)
In this present article, I examine certain speeches1 of HRH The Prince of Wales and show that the Prince, consciously or unconsciously, thinks like an "advanced" Adlerian thinker. He thinks in terms of the Adlerian notion of the fifth life task. Many of his speeches reflect the Adlerian notion of the fifth life task in its more developed stages which contain an explicit spiritual component. This is sufficient reason to suggest that Adlerian thought is having an influence, albeit not clinical, in the public domain.
We may safely presume, that as King, Charles Windsor's thinking will continue to reflect Adlerian principles. These principles will be an asset to him as monarch. They will help keep him in touch with the modern world and in tune with the thinking of his subjects. Examining the thinking of HRH The Prince of Wales in terms of the fifth life task highlights a distinctive leadership style that will be beneficial to his future subjects.
I argue that the present thinking of the future monarch is an encouragement to those who seek to advance SI now and in the future. The Prince's thinking, as reflected in his speeches, is not intended for himself alone in order to make him a better person. A purpose of the Prince’s thinking is to increase SI for the common good and to encourage a spirituality in his future subjects. By doing this he thus helps himself. Since the fifth life task concerns spirituality (Mosak & Dreikurs, 1967), it is important that the monarch understand the spirituality that is relevant to his future subjects. If he fails, the effectiveness of the monarchy will be diminished.
It is difficult and somewhat risky to evaluate and draw conclusions about an individual’s thoughts as they are being formed and being put into words. Thoughts change as personality changes. I discuss the thoughts of HRH as they appear in his speeches. I identify the context of these speeches, assess his words and draw conclusions about the developing philosophy of the future king of England. His visionary thinking reveals examples of “non-competitive ways to live, including useful and desirable work and open relationships” (Croake & Slavik, 1998, p. 72).
The Prince is convinced that seeking philosophical and spiritual meaning to existence provides the universal link between humans. Humans seek a meaning to existence that lies outside of themselves. Mosak and Dreikurs say that “any personal ‘encounter’ with God, through acceptance, alliance, public worship, individual prayer, or ‘miracles’ may give meaning to existence” (Mosak & Dreikurs, 1967, p. 21). Humans strive to understand their own meaning as well as the meaning of the world that is realized by their thoughts, goals and actions. In his speeches, the Prince often develops the thought of contributing to the common good and community participation, that is, SI.
This Adlerian way of thinking by the Prince of Wales provides social opportunities for change. The Prince is not a prophet. However, he does remind the realm, and others who care to pay attention, where and how they have gone astray. He reminds his future subjects of eternal truths they presently seem to ignore. This is a goal of the fifth life task according to Adlerian thinking. Drawing on personal experience which he has gained from the world he has encountered; the Prince encourages opportunities for social improvement and supports efforts that are constructive of the human spiritual condition.
The Prince's thinking reveals a subjective and personal perspective. That is to say, he is an interpretive thinker who takes his own experience as primary. His visionary thinking acknowledges something (or someone) greater than himself. He has made a decision to believe in a greater power. This, as Mosak and Dreikurs (1967) relate, is part of the personal life task. Like most visionary thinkers, he struggles to express himself clearly. Clues in the Prince’s speeches indicate that he hopes to help others grow into a deeper understanding of spirituality and in the truth concerning the unity of objective and subjective knowledge. In sum, through the example of his thinking a way of engaging in the fifth life task is reflected to the public.
Material and Spiritual Stewardship in the Fifth Life Task
With these words the Prince sets a personal and achievable goal for material and spiritual stewardship: “Good stewardship celebrates the beauty and the diversity of the natural world. We should not, I believe, just be ‘managing the Earth’s resources more efficiently’ (relying on a traditional utilitarian ethic), but seeking to live in balance with the rest of creation, even if we cannot discern any direct and immediate material benefit to ourselves in that process.” [Speech 1] Material and spiritual stewardship, on an individual and collective basis, are a concern for the Prince. According to him, we need to recognize our individual role in conservation as well as recognize that individuals are part of a greater whole. His holistic way of thinking accepts that the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts.
A Marxist Socialism is not compatible with the Prince’s thinking. Marxist Socialism looks only on the material organization of human life as the Objective of government. This denies spiritual stewardship which is arguably an objective of civil government.
The Prince also opposes unbridled capitalism as an answer to social problems. Rather, he favours a co-operative and responsible approach to matters of material and spiritual stewardship. To further the ends of material and spiritual stewardship by business and education, he suggests that "a business and educational partnership is a process which . . . has to prepare young people for the assumption of responsibility of one kind and another, for an active approach to citizenship, and for an understanding of the spiritual and moral dimensions of life–values which are all too easily submerged in the endless search for short-term profitability or buried beneath the more debilitating aspects of consumerism." [S. 2] The Prince, like many in his generation, reacts to what he perceives to be an overbearing, arrogant and destructive establishment within modern society which works against SI.
Among his earliest memories is a horror at contemporary trends of thought which seemed aimed at “destroying the traditional foundations on which so many of our human values had been based for thousands of years” [S. 3]. To the Newspaper society he says, "qualities of understanding, tolerance, judgement and good sense . . . are now everywhere under attack. They seem to be threatened by pressures in our society which not only undermine these values, but also intimidate the people who hold them. It appears to me that a preoccupation with the fashionable theories and trends of the day is threatening to eat away at the values of our society. "[S. 4] Although not a revolutionary thinker, he is certainly an evolutionary thinker.
The future king has shown concern for the material stewardship by establishing various trusts. "We have to show trust, mutual respect and tolerance, if we are to find the common ground between us and work together to find solutions. The community enterprise approach of my own Trust, and the very successful Volunteers Scheme it has run for some years, show how much can be achieved by a common effort which spans the classes, cultures and religions. " [S. 5] These trusts illustrate how he realizes the fifth life task in a pluralistic public context. Likewise, the fifth life task includes empowering spiritual stewardship within the community. "In my experience, any approach to the problems of urban regeneration which is not based on community participation--a participation which empowers the community–is doomed, on the whole to failure…. It means helping to shift the balance of decisions from the developer and the planner towards those who live and work in a particular place. " [S. 6] Thus, those who plan urban regeneration in a society ought to seek input from that society to achieve a balance of material and spiritual benefit.
The Millennium, according to the Prince, is a powerful visionary notion with its own creative powers for SI and a balanced stewardship. "We need to use the Millennium to reawaken our capacity to rejoice in all creation, to celebrate the glorious richness of God's world and to re-establish our spiritual foundations which we can draw from the great religious traditions." [S. 7] This universal thinking is the fifth life task. Among the Prince's concerns disclosed through engaging in the fifth life task is the right to worship with a free conscience, as distinct from the toleration of worship, not just for Christians but for non-Christians as well.
Speaking of renewal in the Millennium he says: “This concept of renewal is not the monopoly of Christianity, but is central to many great faiths.” He continues to say that “the deeper, more fundamental, aspects of the Millennium are barely being considered. Why should this be when here, above all, lies so much of its true meaning and significance for us, not just as Christians, but for people of all faiths and creeds?” (S. 7) From a social interest perspective, the Prince looks at the whole world not just the United Kingdom. His travels have given him a global perspective reflected in his thinking. This global outlook ensures that he does not restrict his thinking to Christian interpretation. The Prince understands the Millennium as an opportunity for renewal irrespective of religious persuasion. The goals of SI, material and spiritual in the fifth life task, can be presented to the nation through the concept of Millennium renewal.
Spiritual Leadership in the Fifth Life Task
In the contemporary Western context, little seems to be missing in life. However, according to the Prince, Westerners lack a dimension of spiritual fulfilment. "Despite all the dramatic changes that have been wrought by science and technology, and all the remarkable benefits they have indeed brought us, there remains deep in the soul… of mankind a persistent and unconscious anxiety that something is missing–some vital ingredient that makes life truly worth living; that provides that inexplicable sense of harmony and beauty to a world which is in danger of sacrificing these elements on the altar of outmoded and irreverent ideology. We are told that our contemporary built environment must reflect the ‘spirit of the age.’ But what concerns me most of all is that we are succeeding in creating an ‘age without spirit.’" [S. 3] This concern for spirit is one of his vital messages and it is not simply a rhetorical issue.
Spirituality, or a search for meaning, is the common denominator that all humans share. Spirituality is a matter of the heart, not of the head. He addresses the Temenos society: "My support for Temenos is based on the importance of maintaining perennial wisdom and traditional forms of knowledge--that is, knowledge acquired through means that come from the heart; but not necessarily from the head – (our head is so often telling us one thing, while our heart is telling us something else). I am one of those people, for better or for worse who tends to follow his heart, and that is the only way in which I can operate. I think this is an important, if hidden, feature in many people's lives, but the use of the heart is 'educated out' during the process of education in the West." [S. 8]
That our head tells us one thing and our heart another when it comes to the meaning in life he clearly states in a speech to the Salvation Army at its 1978 Congress: "To my mind the example set by the Salvation Army is Christianity at its most essential, simple and effective level, unfettered by academic or theological concern for dogma or doctrine. In an age when we are assailed on all sides by a host of outlandish philosophies and inhuman beliefs, when people are uncertain about what is right and what is wrong and anxious about being considered old–fashioned or out of date, it seems worse than folly that Christians should still argue and bicker over doctrinal matters which only serve to bring needless unhappiness and distress to a considerable number of people. Surely what we should be worried about now is whether people are going to become atheists; whether they are going to be given an idea of what is right and wrong; whether they are going to be given an awareness of the things of the Spirit and of the meaning and infinite beauty of nature. These are the things which matter and these are the things for which Christians ought to join together with determination and understanding." [S. 9]
As part of the contemporary cultural condition, the Prince recognizes that spirituality has rights, as it were. "There is, I believe, a resurgence of spirituality across the world; small beacons of civilizing values in the face of the all-pervading materialism of recent times, which represent a yearning to improve the deeper quality of our lives and to restore those enduring cultural priorities which represent a moral foundation in a world dominated by consumerism. " [S. 7] These rights ought not to be forfeited or sold out to commercial concerns.
The Prince desires to provide for and to aid all humanity given that all are created in God's image and likeness. This is an extension of Adler’s understanding of the purpose of religion. This desire to assist or aid is not merely of human origin. Like all Adlerian thinkers contemplating the fifth life task, the Prince recognizes another element at work prompting the living-out of a peaceful existence: "I do not expect you to agree with me, but I believe that the most urgent need for Western man is to discover that divine element in his being, without which there never can be any possible hope or meaning to our existence in this Earthly realm. " [S. 10] One could hardly say this in public without some personal experience to rely upon.
Drawing on his personal experience, the Prince encourages opportunities for improvement and supports efforts that are constructive of the human spiritual condition. This leads to a developing of spiritual leadership in the fifth life task. He tells future architects: "What I would like to be taught and explored and studied in my Institute, is the fact that the architecture that nourishes the spirit is not so much a traditional, which resembles or apes the past, but rather a particular kind of architecture whose forms, plans, materials, are based on human feeling." [S. 3] The Prince’s speeches reveal that his understanding of personal feeling is similar to that of other Adlerian thinkers and that “one can use feeling to lead oneself into a life of community interest” (Croake & Slavik, 1998, p. 64).
The Prince encourages cooperation among his future subjects, including those with contrary beliefs or no beliefs. This is an element of the fifth life task. Mosak and Dreikurs (1967) write concerning this cooperation: “In addition to describing God and his relationship to Him, each individual assumes a posture toward those who either do not believe in God or those who do believe in Him but who do not share the same definitions or the same forms of relating to Him” (p. 17).
The Prince is not a philosopher, nor an academic, nor a historian but he is a modern, significant thinker. His way of understanding brings the constructive thinking of Adler’s fifth life task to the public forum. He says: "I am no philosopher, but I can try to explain what I feel spirit to be. It is that sense, that overwhelming experience or awareness of a oneness with the Natural World, and beyond that, with the creative force that we call God which lies at the central point of all. It is, above all, an ‘experience.’ It defies conscious thought. It steals upon you and floods your whole being despite your best logical intentions. It lies deep in the heart of mankind as if some primeval memory. It is both ‘pagan’ and Christian, and in this sense, is surely the fundamental expression of what we call religion." [S. 3] The Prince's thinking presents us with something new. He is a modern man who has shifted his thinking away from expected topics and perspectives of royal tradition and delves into an uncharted area. This engagement of the fifth life task he has truly begun on his own. He explains this, in part, to future architects: "I discovered that Descartes and scientific rationalism led to a mechanistic view of the Universe and of Man’s place in it and I began to realise what lay at the root of this feverish revolution…. I have often wondered why it is that I was not seduced by this conveniently logical, but utterly soulless philosophical approach." [S. 3]This shift in attitude, the break it represents with royal tradition, its warmth and fervour show a courageous development towards SI in the thinking of the future monarch.
This type of spiritual discovery is an example for all who engage in the fifth life task. By way of encouragement, the Prince advises: "I would like students to learn that in order to be able to design with sensitivity and an appropriate sense of reverence for the natural surroundings, they first need to learn humility and how to submerge the inevitable egocentric tendencies that we all experience." [S. 3] In his biography of His Royal Highness, Jonathan Dimbleby (1994) writes of a personal spiritual journey undertaken by the Prince. This journey led His Royal Highness to submerge his own egocentric tendencies and, in turn, to suggest a way for others to follow.
Comment
From this brief examination, I conclude that the Prince’s present thinking reflects an understanding of Adlerian SI at the level of the fifth life task. This is an appropriate way of thinking for a future monarch in tune with the times. I anticipate that the Prince’s thinking will continue to develop along the pattern of Adlerian SI and this will be increasingly evident in his speeches and public pronouncements.
ENDNOTE:
I am grateful to Amanda Neville, Information Officer to The Press Secretary to HRH The Prince of Wales, for her kind assistance in providing me with photocopies of the Prince's speeches. In personal correspondence with me she wrote: “with regard to the question does His Royal Highness prepare his own speeches? Obviously, His Royal Highness has a large input into the speeches, but his Private Secretaries assist along with a select band of people who are specialists in various fields. His Royal Highness obviously has the final say.”
REFERENCES
Croake, J., & Slavik, S. (1998). The problem of feelings. Explorations: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 17(2), 63-73.
Dimbleby, J., (1994). The Prince of Wales: A biography. Toronto: Doubleday.
Mosak, H., & Dreikurs, R. (1967). The life tasks Ill. The fifth life task. The Individual Psychologist, 5(1), 16-22.
Savage, A. (1998). Alfred Adler's social interest: A holistic pastoral psychology. Explorations: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 16(3), 43-52.
SPEECHES CITED
1. Keynote address by HRH the Prince of Wales to the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission). 22 April 1992. London.
2. Address by HRH the Prince of Wales at BITC' S “Opportunity Through Partnership” Exhibition. 28 October 1992. Manchester.
3. Speech by HRH the Prince of Wales at the Inauguration of the Prince of Wales's Institute of Architecture. 30 January 1992. St James’s Palace.
4. Speech to the Newspaper Society by HRH the Prince of Wales. 4 May 1994. London.
5. Speech by HRH the Prince of Wales on the Occasion of His Visit to the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. 27 October 1993.
6. Speech by HRH the Prince of Wales to the Scottish Homes Conference “New Challenges for New Times.” 26 October 1993. Glasgow.
7. Article by HRH the Prince of Wales for Perspectives on the Millennium. 25 January 1996. London.
8. Speech by HRH the Prince of Wales at the Temenos Reception at St James’s Palace. 19 October 1995.
9. Speech by HRH the Prince of Wales to the Salvation Army Congress. 30 June 1978. London.
10. Lecture by HRH the Prince of Wales, as Patron, to the Royal College of Psychiatrists. 5 July 1991. Brighton.
11. Annual Shakespeare Birthday Lecture delivered by HRH the Prince of Wales. 22 April 1991. Stratford-Upon-Avon.
THE CHANGING PERSPECTIVE OF PASTORAL PRACTICE
(Originally published in Explorations: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 2001, Vol. 19, no 3, pp 43-54.)
From an ecclesial understanding the term pastor designates a particular office originating in the first generation of the Church Pastors are gifts to the church. The pastoral office derives its purpose and significance from God Its revealing source. The historical ecclesiastical model of pastoral practice requires that a pastor be ordained In order to guide and govern the Christian community, the church. There are no pastors without a flock. Contemporary developments in ecclesial understanding and governance create the opportunity for lay individuals to assist the clergy in pastoral practice. This ecclesial development has implications for the office of pastor and the ministry of the laity. To be faithful to its revealed tradition the ecclesial community must retain the distinction between the ordained and laity in pastoral practice.
An Ecclesial Context
In light of National Pastoral Care Week 1990, Strunk [1] writes in an editorial: “The event once again draws attention to the notion of 'pastoral care' as a generic term. What does it really mean? How wide are its parameters: Who are its participants?” Pastoral practice begins with the early church. [2] In Acts and Mark, we read of Jesus going about doing good and curing all who had fallen into the power of evil. [3] Further, the apostle James notes the influence of the power of grace through the healing gifts of the community on the ill person. [4] Ecclesiastically, this understanding was stressed and expressed in sacramental form by the Council of Trent that introduced the Sacrament of the Sick and reserved it to presbyters (Bishops and priests). Contemporary Christians understand the Sacrament of the Sick to strengthen the ill person, to arouse confidence in divine mercy, and to help bear trials in this life more easily. If bodily health is restored it is expedient for the health of the person, body and soul. Ashley and O’Rourke add ‘reconciliation’ as an aspect of restored health. [5]
Pangrazzi notes that an increasing number of non-ordained lay people are entering health-care institutions. “In countries like Holland and Sweden, they are chaplains and receive a regular salary. In others, like France and Italy, they are part of chaplaincy teams, have more limited training, and offer volunteer service.” [6] In the modem market place context. Clifford observes that “unfortunately the non-theological image of the business enterprise has come to dominate much of the thinking and practice of many churchman, especially on the North American continent.” [7] Therefore, there is a need to articulate an ecclesially–embedded pastoral practice that speaks to human existence, not commercial interests. Human relationships require a re-assessment of theological understanding of pastoral practice the Christian community by the minister, ordained or lay. In the context of human relationships, “pastoral counselling, as it has evolved over the past twenty-five years, has become a highly-specialized part of the pastoral care ministry of the church and synagogue,” notes North. [8] From a Christian perspective one could ask: Is the shift to embrace the synagogue, as North suggests is happening, in keeping with the ecclesial concept of pastoral care? Byrd and Jessen note that Christian and non-Christian religious bodies have presented themselves as engaging in specialized pastoral care — a ministry traditionally reserved to the Christian community. They write: “Likewise, clergy from Roman Catholic traditions, as well as Jewish traditions, have become members of the College. These developments clearly point us in the direction of a concern for ministry in specialized settings.” [9] One may also ask: Can there be an understanding of non-Christian pastoral care? One could argue that spiritual care ought to be identified with the synagogue and pastoral care identified with the church.
Changes in ecclesial thinking beg the question: How are we to understand pastoral practice vis à vis the synagogue, the mosque and Hindu temple? This is a pressing question as western culture continues to adjust to an increasing presence of non-Christians in health care facilities. Pastors need to take seriously the effort to develop a separate understanding for the non-Christian “cure of souls.” In a critical analysis of this notion Johanson reviews Augsburger's book, Pastoral Counselling Across Cultures, and writes: "Augsburger’s book would do better to emphasize much more clearly the value of referral and finding ways to support indigenous healers. It is grandiose to suggest that a counsellor should have facility at working in a nondirective way with an American couple, switch smoothly to a more authoritarian role when working with an Oriental couple, know how to make good contact with a Native American in the next hour, and move on to working with a woman who grew up with voodoo in Haiti." [10]
The premise is that Christians and non-Christians require spiritual care. All religious traditions engage in spiritual care. However, only the Christian tradition of spiritual care has been gifted with pastors who provide pastoral care. Paul lists pastors as among Christ’s gift to the Church. [11] Is there a distinction to be made in pastoral practice between the ordained holding office in the ecclesial community and the laity who minister in the name of the ecclesial community? Because Clifford [12] tells us that “there is no universal agreement among its advocates as to the precise relation between the Church and the episcopally ordained ministry [pastors],” clergy and laity must continue their pastoral practice in light of “the meaning and significance of being a pastor in both historic and contemporary forms of the Christian Church.” [13] Wise appeals to a pre–ecclesiastical understanding of pastoral practice based on the activity of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament. Jesus’ activity fits no Levitical nor ecclesiastical model of priesthood or ordination. Wise says: “The direction of the pastoral ministry of Jesus is clear as its source. It was directed to the needs of people. The full meaning of this requires much reflection and elaboration.” [14]
Theologically, Jesus cannot be conceived as a pastor. He was not ordained. However, he is the one after whom pastoral practice is modelled. Jernigan writes, “The basis task of every Christian…is to try to translate Jesus’ concern for loving relationships into the practical realities of everyday life.” [15] Theology, the translation of Jesus’s concerns for loving relationships, ought to direct pastoral practice of everyday Christian life. Non-Christians do not have an understanding of theology similar to that of Christian understanding. Abelard’s (1079–1142) understanding that theology is an ordered body of knowledge about God has become to be the dominant characteristic of Christian theology. In contrast. pagan antiquity and the early Greek Fathers understood theology to be about questions of mythology, spirituality and philosophical disciplines referring to meaning in the universe. [16] Theology, as a Christian discipline, has taken on various forms throughout history as believers attempted to understand revelation in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. Today, theology concerns itself with revealed principles and reasoned conclusions, not necessarily. scholastically interpreted, but worked out in an ecclesial context. [17]
That a theology of pastoral practice ought to direct the practice of pastoral care has long been recognized by the Churches. This understanding has been re–affirmed by the Church of Rome in the Second Vatican Council’s decree on the training of priests. The pastoral education of candidates characterizes the priestly formation programme. [18] The traditional pastoral relationship between the pastor and parishioner is expressed in persona Christi. This expression needs to be reviewed in light of contemporary experience and the understanding of the ecclesial office of the ordained and the ministry of the laity. In pastoral practice the focus is, of necessity, on the relationship of Christians among themselves. The fact that they are Christians, i.e. baptised, characterizes a spiritually distinct community. This character is lacking in communities formed on natural (humane) understanding or fellowship. Pastoral practice is rooted in James's letter about sending for the presbyters at a time of illness. [19] In a crisis, the ecclesial prayer of faith will afford salvation to the sick person James says. Pastoral practice, (ministry) among the baptised, involves being present to one another “in the Lord.” which differs from natural presence or fellowship which may be a matter of spiritual care appropriate within any human community, religious or secular.
For many in specialized settings of pastoral care, (hospital, school, prison), “doing” is recognized as secondary to “being.” Throughout history, many philosophers have attempted to answer the “who to be” question. In the pastor/patient relationship the pastor’s office is characterized primarily as “who to be” and secondarily as “what to do.” A Christian pastoral understanding, which is rooted in the activity of Jesus of Nazareth, helps focus attention on “who to be.” In our day, many psychologists, Christian and non-Christian, have undertaken this inquiry. Among them, one of particular usefulness to pastoral practice because of his friendly attitude to religious belief is Alfred Adler. Adler’s humanistic psychology is “person oriented” and examines the question of “who to be.” Adler’s Individual Psychology helm in answering Strunk’s questions noted in the introduction, about parameters and participants in pastoral practice. Support of Adler’s contribution to religious understanding and usefulness for pastoral practice may be found in other places. [20] From a professional psychological understanding, Alfred Adler, offers a way to appreciate relationships which touch upon issues of the psyche and spirituality. This is evidenced in his discussion with Ernst Jahn, a Lutheran pastor. [21] Aspects of Adler’s understanding can be adapted theologically to pastoral practice within an ecclesial context.
The Pastor’s Office; The Minister’s Role
In 1988, Eades [22] could write: “NIBIC chaplains live out the uniqueness of their ministry and represent a broader view of the clergy role than tradition defines for parish-bound pastors. The workplace of these chaplains is the same workplace inhabited by people who both go and don’t go to church.” In the mind of the National Institute of Business and Industrial Chaplains pastoral practice is not to be reserved to the Christian community. Nor is it likely that in the mind of the NIBIC that the office of ordination is understood as it is in the church. Traditionally, hierarchical churches required ordination as a pre-requisite for pastoral practice. That ordination is not a pre–requisite for pastoral practice is a developing notion which invites a review of the office of the ordained and the role of the laity both within the ecclesial community and outside the church in contemporary society.
Contemporary ecclesial understanding needs to return to the roots of pastoral practice as revealed in the early church. Today, “sometimes people incorrectly think pastoral counsellors are people who counsel pastors. We are, actually, pastors who counsel. That is to say, we are pastors and laypersons with theological educations whose primary ministry is doing counselling and psychotherapy with individuals, couples, families and groups. [23] This is a problematic understanding from an ecclesial perspective. More accurately the preceding description is of counsellors, ordained or lay, with “theological educations whose primary ministry is doing counselling and psychotherapy with individuals, couples, families and faith groups.” Pastoral practice deals with those issues of religious and spiritual care cited earlier. Counselling and psychotherapy deal with the psyche and the spirit but not necessarily in a religious context. All issues of the psyche and spirit do. not necessarily involve those of pastoral practice. The lack of distinction between issues of the psyche and spirit and religious and spiritual care comes about since theological education for pastoral practice is no longer reserved to seminaries. [24] This lack of distinction reflects a changing cultural context and causes the question of the relationship between the ordained and the laity to be reviewed both in a general pastoral context and in a specialized chaplaincy context.
Within an ecclesial context, Clifford distinguishes three organizational aspects of the church which influence pastoral practice. First, there is a business outlook which tends to shun theological questions; secondly, there is “Catholic” outlook which looks upon ministry as “the divinely ordained medium for the transmission of the gospel and sacramental life,” and thirdly, the outlook based on “the Reformation doctrine of the Priesthood of all believers” that commits the entire church to ministry. [25] Clearly the first cannot be accepted as a tradition within the church. The church’s minister/pastor is one who derives office, purpose, and message from an authoritative source. The authoritative source for office/ministry, purpose and message in pastoral practice is Jesus of Nazareth, not the corporation in the market place. Clifford’s “divinely ordained medium” and the “Priesthood of all believers” are notions arising out of the ecclesial community gathered in Jesus's name. It is the risen Christ whom ministers, both lay and ordained, represent. They have the message of the good news of what God has done in Jesus the Christ to share with all who are open to it. Muse warns of the danger that Christian spirituality can become “reduced to a mere symbol of the way to organize the psychic stuff of life on the road to psychological health according to prevailing secular norms.” [26] In pastoral practice one must not psychologize Christianity, nor Christianize psychology since as Ashely and O'Rourke observe: “Some ministers are so secularized that they feel more comfortable in a psychotherapeutic role than in a spiritual one and thus fail their patients by refusal to speak in God's name.” [27] Such misunderstanding occurs with the fusion of pastoral practice and psychology in which goals are set through the insights and objectives of the other' s value system. Pastors and ministers are called to the activity of Jesus of Nazareth in their pastoral practice. This is not necessarily so with psychologists.
Clifford reminds us that: “It is simply not true that, in virtue of the priesthood of all believers, all offices are interchangeable.” [28] However, offices are distinguishable. The role of pastor traditionally has been reserved to the ordained. Ministry undertaken in the name of the Lord, is not reserved to the ordained. The laity share in the pastor’s office and it is the Lord who calls them to minister in this manner. [29] Differing gifts (offices/ministries) are distinguished within the church. Paul lists them in I Corinthians 12:4-11. From the perspective of governance and structure, which defines ecclesial office and ministry, a contemporary Roman Catholic canonist writes of chaplaincy.
The doctrine distinguishes between ‘ecclesiastical chaplains’ and ‘lay chaplains:’ the former is established by the ecclesiastical authority to. address the pastoral need of those groups of faithful inadequately assisted by common pastoral organization: the latter is provided in civil institutions by the faithful who give, with ecclesiastical approval and assured economic support, pastoral assistance in certain cases (hospitals, schools, etc.). [30]
From a Reformed perspective. Clifford writes that “the pastor’s perspectives are different, at least from the counsellor who is a humanist. Even the Christian layman who shares the pastor’s perspectives, is commissioned to operate within the framework of his particular calling. and therefore, his orientation to those perspectives is somewhat different.” [31] In the specialized area of health care ethics Ashley and O’Rourke discuss ministry to the hospital staff and write: “A distinction needs to be made here between the chaplain who is most properly an ordained minister...to whom the role of pastor of a community belongs by office, and other pastoral care professionals who are not ordained but who nevertheless have a genuine ministry [authors' italics].” [32]
Within the hierarchical model of church there is a developing understanding that ordination is not a necessary requirement for practical practice. This understanding introduces a distinction between the office of pastor and the role of minister. This development is anticipated in the mind of Hiltner, an early writer on pastoral practice, who writes from a non-hierarchical perspective that pastoral psychology is both psychological and theological religious and secular, and pastoral psychology is both clerical and lay. It may well be especially relevant to the ordained minister. But ill most of Protestantism, the minister is not of a different order from the layman. There is a universal priesthood and pastorhood of believers. In its full scope, pastoral psychology should be as meaningful to the Society of Friends as to Anglo-Catholic members of the Protestant Episcopal Church. [33]
Conclusion
God has provided for a particular practice and model of ministry as reflected in the activity of Jesus of Nazareth. The office of pastor and role of lay minister are distinguishable and mutually supportive. I have argued that the notion of pastoral practice that arises out of an ecclesial hierarchical model of the church need not be reserved to the ordained.
[1] OrIo Strunk, “Editorial: Celebrating the Reality of Pastoral Care,” The Journal of Pastoral Care, 1990, ‘Vol. 44, No.3, p. 20l.
[2] On this point. Holger Eschmann, “Towards a Pastoral Care in a Trinitarian Perspective.” Journal of Pastoral Care, 2000, Vol. 54, No. 4, pp. 419-427, has significant insights to offer.
[3] Acts 10:38: Mark 16:18.
[4] James 5:14-16.
[5] Benedict M. Ashley & Kevin D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis (St. Louis, MO: Catholic Health Association of the United States. 1987).
[6] Arnaldo. Pangrazzi, “Chaplaincy in Europe,” Journal of Pastoral Care, 1995. Vol. 49, No. l, p. 74.
[7] Paul R. Clifford, The Pastoral Calling (Great Neck: NY: Channel Press, 1961), p. 6.
[8] William M. North, “The American Association of Pastoral Counsellors,” The Journal of Pastoral Care, 1988, Vol. 42, No. 3, p. 197.
[9] Julian L. Byrd & Arne K Jessen, “The Challenge of Chaplains of the American Protestant Health Association,” The Journal of Pastoral Care, 1988, Vol. 42, No. 3, p. 231.
[10] Gregory J. Johanson, “A Critical Analysis of Pastoral Counselling Across Cultures,” Journal of Pastoral Care, 1992, Vol. 46, No. 2, p. 172.
[11] Ephesians 4: 11.
[12] Paul R. Clifford, The Pastoral Calling, (Great Neck, NY: Channel Press, 1961). p. 11.
[13] Homer L. Jernigan, “Prolegomena to a Pastoral Theology,” The Journal of Pastoral Care, 1991, Vol. 45, No. 3, p. 222.
[14] Carroll A. Wise, The Meaning of Pastoral Care (New York. NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1966), p. 4.
[15] Homer L. Jernigan, “Prolegomena to a Pastoral Theology,” The Journal of Pastoral Theology, 1991, Vol. 45, No. 3, p. 224.
[16] “Theology”, in Joseph A. Komonchak, Mary Collins and Dermot A. Lane (Eds.), The Dictionary of Theology, Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier. 1989), p. 1011.
[17] B. P. Gaybba, Aspects of the Mediaeval History of Theology (Pretoria, SA: University of South Africa Press, 1988).
[18] “Decree on the Training of Priests,” in Austin Flannery (Ed.), The Basic Sixteen Documents Vatican Council 11 (Northport, NY: Costello Publishing, 1996), p. 378.
[19] James 5:14-16
[20] A. Müller, You Shall be a Blessing: Main Traits of a Religious Humanism (San Francisco, CA: Alfred Adler Institute of San Francisco, 1992); Allan M. Savage, “Alfred Adler’s Social Interest: A Holistic Pastoral Psychology,” Explorations: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 1998, Vol. 16, No.3, pp. 43-52; Allan M. Savage, “Faith, Hope and Charity: An Adlerian Perspective,” The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, 1998, Vol 28, No. 1, pp. 81-94.
[21] Hendrika Vande Kemp, “Wholeness. Holiness, and the Care of Souls: The Adler-Jahn Debate in Historical Perspective,” Journal of Individual Psychology, 2000, Vol. 56.
[22] Robert E. Eades, “The National Institute of Business and Industrial Chaplains.” Journal of Pastoral Care, 1988, Vol. 42, No. 3, p. 247.
[23] William M. North, “The American Association of Pastoral Counsellors,” Journal of Pastoral Care, 1988, Vol. 42, No. 3, p. 197.
[24] T. H. Sanks, “Education for Ministry Since Vatican II.” Theological Studies, 1984. Vol. 45, 498.
[25] Paul R. Clifford, The Pastoral Calling. (Great Neck, NY: Channel Press, 1961), p. 6.
[26] Stephen Muse, “Keeping the Wellsprings of Ministry Clear,” Journal of Pastoral Care, 2000. Vol. 54. No. 3, p. 260.
[27] Benedict M. Ashley & Kevin D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis (St. Louis, MO: Catholic Health Association of the United States, 1987), p. 399.
[28] Paul R. Clifford, The Pastoral Calling (Great Neck, NY: Channel Press. 1961), p. 24.
[29] “Decree on the Apostolate of Lay People,” in Austin Flannery (Ed.), The Basic Sixteen Documents Vatican Council II (Northport, NY: Costello Publishing. 1996), p. 406.
[30] Juan I. Arrieta, Governance Structures within the Catholic Church (Montreal QC: Wilson & Lafleur Ltée., 2000).
[31] Paul R. Clifford, The Pastoral Calling (Great Neck, NY: Channel Press. 1961), p. 121.
[32] Benedict M. Ashley & Kevin D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis (St. Louis, MO: Catholic Health Association of the United States, 1987), p. 394.
[33] Seward Hiltner, “The Meaning of Pastoral Psychology,” in Simon Doniger (Ed.), The Best of Pastoral Psychology (Great Neck, NY: Pastoral Psychology Press, 1952), p.8.
WHOLISM OR HOLISM IN INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THEOLOGY
(Originally published in The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, 2001, Vol. 31, pp. 23-38.)
Abstract
Psychologists and theologians use the notions of wholism and holism in discussing the individual in a secular and/or religious context. The works of certain Adlerian psychologists show that the terms are neither used nor understood in any conventional manner by these authors. A conventional use of these terms by Adlerian psychologists and phenomenologically-minded theologians could assist in establishing a collaborative approach to understanding the individual in context.
In today’s post-modem context, it is necessary to distinguish between speculative and qualitative language. Speculative language belongs to classical philosophy, whereas qualitative language belongs to phenomenological philosophy. The suffixes “-ism” and “- ity” reflect this distinction. Funk and Wagnall's Canadian College Dictionary (1989) defines “-ism” as a suffix attached to nouns to mean “a distinctive theory, doctrine, or system: usually used disparagingly;” and “-ity” is a suffix attached to nouns to mean a “state, condition, or quality.” The following pairs of terms, often used in discussions in philosophy, theology and psychology illustrate this distinction: personalism versus personality, humanism versus humanity, nationalism versus nationality, historicism versus historicity, Catholicism versus catholicity, individualism versus individuality, spiritualism versus spirituality, modernism versus modernity, dualism versus duality, rationalism versus rationality, moralism versus morality and Deism versus Deity. Words ending in “-ity” reflect a phenomenological language, whereas “-ism” words reflect a speculative philosophical language.
The notions of wholism and holism provide a focal point to ponder a relationship between Individual Psychology and theology. To ask whether the terms wholism and holism, although both ending in “-ism,” can be distinguished in the same fashion as many other words ending in “-ism” and “-ity” helps to focus on the understanding and meaning of the words in Individual Psychology and theology. Frost (1997) thinks the terms can be differentiated and distinguishes between wholism (a unit) and holism (a unity). He suggests we would do well not to confuse wholism with holism. Wholism emphasises the importance of the whole in the study of its parts. Whatever exists is part of a greater whole that influences the nature of the part. This is a scientific concern…. Holism, it seems, is less into scientific methodologies. It is more an awareness about monistic aspects of existence, contrary to dualistic views. (p.68) Holism, Frost feels, being more concerned with monistic aspects, the state or quality of entities, belongs more properly to the “-ity” list of words, whereas, wholism belongs to the “-ism” list of words.
This distinction, however, is not supported by Corsini (1999). In the Dictionary of Psychology, he notes that the term “holism” derives from the thinking of 1. C. Smuts and that “wholism” is but an “infrequent spelling of holism.” To Corsini, the terms mean the same. In this essay, I examine the understanding and usage of the terms, not the correctness of the conclusions drawn from their usage.
Smuts and Holism
Smuts (1927) discusses the nature of what he describes as the Supreme Whole in Holism and Evolution. He discusses the nature of the Supreme Whole [holism] as his way of exploring philosophically the notion of that which is divine in human consciousness. In other words, the Supreme Whole is Smuts’s phenomenological vocabulary for what the speculative theologians discuss as Deism. Smuts is discussing Deity. Smuts (1927) poses this question: “In other words, is there a Whole, a Supreme Whole, of which all lesser wholes are but parts or organs?” (p. 347). Here, Smuts is struggling to express relationships that are open to the transcendent. The fundamental phenomenological task is to express the relationship among wholes and the Supreme Whole such that the expression overcomes the dichotomy of speculative thinking between the knower and the known, creature and creator. To his mind, we must consider this question because his argument for a Supreme Whole “implies clearly something more to complete it” (p. 347). A speculative theologian, however, would ask: “Who created God?” Further, Smuts (1927) says “nature is holistic without being a real whole” (p. 349). In saying this, to me it seems that Smuts is trying to say that there is nothing greater outside nature. Nature itself is all-encompassing. This notion challenges theologians and psychologists schooled in a speculative way of thinking. McCool offers a phenomenological (non-speculative) perspective by which to ponder the notion of Smuts' Supreme Whole. He says: "In post-Kantian philosophy...the Infinite Absolute ‘went out of itself through its finite self-manifestation in the dynamic universe of nature and spirit…. In the same way, each natural human community in the spiritual universe had its own specific communal idea that achieved the perfection of its realisation through the free activity of individual members. And, since spiritual realities were also self-conscious, the community’s formative idea manifested itself on the level of consciousness as the communal spirit or Geist" (p. 12).
By abandoning speculative thinking, McCool conceives the transcendent and the immanent as co-terminus, that is, they form a unity, distinguishable but not separable with respect to their internal relationships. Phenomenological understanding presents some challenges for speculative thinkers about relationships. This is the forum in which Adler’s thinking operates. The authors represented below, like McCool, whose Infinite Absolute “went out of itself,” conceive of wholism and holism without taking into account the classical concept of revelation. As a result, they can only discuss God as “a God of the philosophers,” that is, a God of reasoned thought and not as the God of revelation. Smuts (1927) suggests that a God, not revealed, but one that is a product of the natural process of human understanding is not the object of worship. He writes: The belief in the Divine Being rests, and necessarily must rest, on quite different grounds, as a God whose concept is deduced from natural process is not a being whom the human soul can worship (p.350).
According to Smuts, the psychologist’s notion of Deity, not the speculative philosopher’s concept of Deism, is more acceptable to contemporary thought. He continues: "The holistic nisus which rises like a living fountain from the very depths of the universe is the guarantee that failure does not await us, that the ideals of Well-being, of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are firmly grounded in the nature of things, and will not eventually be endangered or lost…. The rise and self-perfection of wholes in the Whole is the slow but unerring process and goal of this Holistic universe "(p. 353). His thinking seems to be influenced by that of the English metaphysician Samuel Alexander (1859-1938). Alexander apparently "conceives the deity as the next highest level to be emerged out of any given level. Thus, for beings on the level of life mind is deity, but for beings possessing minds there is a nisus or urge toward a still higher quality. To such beings that dimly felt quality is deity. The quality next above any given level is deity to the beings on that level. For men deity has not yet emerged, but there is a nisus towards its emergence" (Runes, 1963, p. 8).
Smuts uses the term holistic and conceptualizes his thinking phenomenologically thus distinguishing it from speculative philosophical conceptualizations. We must this leave distinction to be developed further by phenomenological philosophers and theologians exploring human relationships.
Recent Adlerian Thinking
Adlerian psychologists use notions of wholism and holism, or they discuss notions in terms of the social field that incorporates an understanding of wholism or holism. In this essay, I ponder how some psychologists seem to understand these terms. Judging by the way in which the terms wholism and holism are used there seems to be no standardised acceptance of the terms according to either Frost’s understanding or Corsini’s definition.
Vande Kemp (2000), for example, does not mention wholism or holism in her article. The title of her article, however, “Wholeness, holiness, and the care of souls: The Adler-Jahn debate in historical perspective” invites consideration from a wholistic versus holistic perspective. Soul care, which involves “the acquisition of a strong, God-focused sense of destiny” in a person’s life, is more satisfactorily articulated in terms of a phenomenological understanding of wholism and holism than in the speculative view of Christian/secular anthropologies which she discusses (p. 243). A phenomenological (wholistic/holistic) understanding of the question would remove the dichotomy between, or dissociation of, Christian soul care and secular soul care of the person that Vande Kemp has identified between the thinking of Adler and Jahn.
It is worth taking note of her understanding of this relationship. From a collaborative perspective, I asked her to respond to the following: Rather than think in terms of two compatible disciplines being integrated with respect to anthropological and ontological assumptions, we would do well to make unified anthropological and ontological assumptions about the individual and subsequently understand the person from a psychological and theological aspect of being. In other words, the focus is on the person, not the disciplines.
In her reply, she indicated that she prefers to remain focussed on the disciplines, not the person, which she seems to understand as not existing outside a social field. Her thinking would, I suspect, fall into the camp that recognises wholism as the preferred context of understanding the person. She answered: “I would say an adequate psychology can only be focussed on Persons-in-Relation, to borrow a phrase from the British philosopher John Macmurray.” A focus on the person, she seems to suggest, would be a focus on what is only a hypothetical situation, a whole. Her thinking seems to be somewhat parallel to Noda’s (2000) approach discussed elsewhere in this essay.
In their article, “Spirituality: Life task or life process,” Gold and Mansager (2000) write that the German root word “Geistig, can be legitimately translated ‘spiritual’ but has the restricted sense of ‘mental’ or ‘intellectual.’ To convey ‘spiritual’ in the sense of ‘religious’ or ‘sacred’ Germans use the word geistlich. The term geistlich does not appear in Adler’s German text” (p. 274) They beg the question of distinguishing between wholism and holism in their understanding of Individual Psychology and theology. They seem to understand the term geistig in the wholistic sense and geistlich in the holistic sense. To illustrate, I insert these terms in square brackets into Mansager’s reply to my question: “Is it correct, based on your explanation of the terms geistig/geistlich, to draw the conclusion that they can be considered more as theological terms than psychological terms?” In reply, Mansager says: "maybe we need to distinguish clearly between the terms theological and psychological. I think they weren’t so separate once upon a time…. And the split developed into geistig as the intellectual freedom of humanity [wholism] and geistlich as the sacred [holism]–both get at the ‘principle of life.’ The first from the psychological or mental/intellectual and the second from the religious. Need these be at odds?.... Does one have a greater reality than the other? I answer in the negative."
I agree with his position. Both theology and psychology are interpretative tools and it is of no benefit to think in terms of one being greater than the other. Mansager continues: "I contend that we can approach this secular world and understand it...as sacred from any number of perspectives (Catholic richness having much to offer), but the secular basis is what we are commenting on [wholism]. It is this basis that the Buddhist and Muslim can also comment on."
To my mind, thinking as a theologian, I would accept the human (personal) basis, before the secular basis, as the focus the Buddhist and Muslim to comment on. The human being in a holistic social field is what ought to capture our attention. The person, constructed within a holistic social field, admits of no qualitative distinction or preferential consideration. Theologically we say that “all persons are equal in the eyes of God.” The means or the tools to understand the person are, however, a secondary consideration and do admit of distinction and preference.
The distinction between psychology and theology, as tools, arises only after the scientific age is upon us as Mansager has correctly noted in his correspondence. But, I contend, for Western thinking at least, no possibility exists of returning to an earlier way of thinking when both disciplines were effectively seen as one. The scientific method, a product of the Western intellect, will effectively prevent this from happening. With respect to philosophical collaboration in accidental and Oriental thinking, Ross (1912) writes: “Equipped with that incomparable instrument, the scientific method [author's emphasis], the Western intellect will probably go on its way with little heed to what the East offers it” (p. 356). The scientific method is the Western contribution to the world and we cannot turn back the clock. In the order of personal consciousness within the social field, first arises psychology (a catholic human science), then theology develops (a catholic sacred science). These are able to collaborate with each other. Collaboration leads to an understanding of the "principle of life" that transcends human nature. Tyrrell (1963/1909) conceives of Christianity
"as the highest spontaneous development of the religious Idea and, therefore, the religion most capable of reflective development, in the light of a science of religion gleaned from historical and psychological investigation, i.e. most capable of becoming as catholic and perpetual as that science" (p. 2). Psychology is talking about the order of nature and Christian theology is talking about the order of grace. This distinction between psychology (wholistic thinking) and theology (holistic thinking) is within the evolution of human understanding and, as a result, is not reversible. Rather than go backwards, our understanding of psychology and theology must evolve collaboratively and distinctively converging on an understanding of the person. Frost's understanding seems to be reflected in Gold and Mansager's article.
Ellis (2000) offers another perspective. He is an acknowledged secular humanist. His thinking about wholistic versus holistic perspectives in therapeutic treatment is revealed in his statement: “Even if the therapist is, as I am, a secular humanist and doses not personally believe in anything supernatural, transcendental, or higher-than-human, such beliefs can sometimes be used” (p.282). I understand Ellis as writing within Corsini’s definition that makes no distinction between wholism and holism. In a similar vein, Brinton (1876), a medical doctor who earlier studied “the religions of the native race of America, a field selected as most favourable by reason of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories respecting them” (p. iii), has this to say regarding the distinction to be made between human and non-human life, "The distinction between the animal and vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals, is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should not go yet further, and say that the mind is co-extensive with motion, and hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here" (p. 8).
He develops his thinking along a psychological understanding that is particular to humans. Brinton might agree with Ellis who states, "having a profound belief that all beings, animate and inanimate, are holistically interconnected and integrated is realistic to some degree--because humans depend on other animals and on an inanimate environment and could not remain alive without them. If people believe, however, that plants and trees are as alive as they are–as some followers of Lao-Tsu believe–they are probably quite unrealistic, will refuse to use animals and objects for their healthy purposes, and will hardly survive" (p. 280).
To those with a spiritual sensitivity or compassionate religious outlook, Ellis' conclusion might seem to be harsh. However, there is a Biblical theological interpretation that does help with Ellis's pragmatic understanding. In Genesis, the world order before the flood is contrasted with the world order after the flood. A New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture (1969) reads: “God recognises as the status quo fallen man in a disordered world that has replaced the paradisiacal peace of the first creation. Therefore, permission is given for the eating of flesh, provided that the sanctity of life is still recognised” (p. 187).
Ellis writes from a perspective that seems, at first, to reduce the possibility of theological and psychological collaboration: "Having a meaning or purpose in life that is outstanding or greater than oneself–what Tillich called ultimate concern and Frankl called purposeful meaning–may be good for most people most of the time, but it may not be good for all people all of the time "(p. 280). Ellis’s critique of meaning and purpose has a parallel in George Tyrrell’s (1861-1909) theological thinking, who also believed that “too much religion is not a good thing,” as it were. Regretfully, the controversy surrounding him in his day obscured the originality and insight of his theological thought. Within a theological, not psychological, understanding Tyrrell came to the same conclusions as Ellis concerning a purposeful meaning in life. When meaning in life is inhibited by church structure, Tyrrell (1906) writes: "For, after all, the visible church (unlike the invisible) is but a means, a way, a creature, to be used where it helps, to be left where it hinders…. [I speak of] the immense variety of means which [the Church] offers for our help – some for the use of all; all for the use of none" (p. 86/100).
In another point of view, Noda’s interpretation of Adler, who is a Teutonic thinker, incorporates Buddhist philosophical thinking. In the abstract to Noda’s article, “The concept of holism in Individual Psychology and Buddhism” we read: “While Buddhism applies holism to understanding the structure of the universe, Individual Psychology recognises conflicts between the individual and the world” (p. 285). Further, Noda understands absolute holism to be equivalent to Adler’s notion of Social Interest. He accepts that there is a distinction, but not a separation, to be made between wholism and holism. His perspective is in keeping with Frost’s understanding, not Corsini’s definition.
It is worth noting that Wenfeng and Shaojie (1991) offer explanation and support for Noda’s distinction of wholism and holism. They write: "Chinese philosophers’ mental structures are integrated ones, unsophisticated and comprehensive. They underline the unity of the self and the indivisibility of the internal spiritual structure of the subject…. In reality human life, knowledge, feeling and will are organically unified. There is neither isolated, pure speculation nor isolated feelings and will. People may divide them through abstraction in their minds. But they cannot do so in reality" (p. 152). In Eastern philosophy, there is no basis, or underlying equivalent reality to the Western notion of ego or “I,” in understanding the person. There is, however, some variation in how the individual is understood within Eastern philosophical thought. On the subject of an “I” in the Western sense, Wenfeng and Shaojie (1991) write: "Most Chinese philosophers affirm the identity of the subject and object. But their differences become evident if they are asked whether their identity is differential or non-differential. These differences may be found in and between Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Confucianists from the Lu-Wang school and Buddhists from the Chan school are for non-differential identity. Among Confucianists, those from the Lu-Wang school are for non-differential identity while those from the Cheng-Zhu school are for differential identity" (p. 161).
Upon noting Noda’s diagrams depicting the concepts of Pluralism, Monism and Holism, I inquired of him about Frost’s distinction between wholism and holism. He replied: "I use the word ‘holism’ exactly in the same meaning to the quotation. Last year, I discussed with Dorothy Peven in Chicago about this problem. She insisted that the Adlerian ‘holism’ just meant that there was no conflict between parts of the mind. I objected to her and told her that it was an ‘organismic’ or ‘systematic’ view of the individual, which denied the concept of the ‘self’ as a main part of the mind. This October, Bernard Shulman came to Japan, and I discussed with him. He often used the word ‘self,’ but we were able to agree with each other. He accepted my idea that the ‘self’ was a fiction. Referring to the constructivism, he said to me, 'I would like to say that we behave ‘as if the self actually exists.’”
Noda (2000) distinguishes between “relative holism” and “absolute holism” and writes “there is no conflict between the individual and the world” (p. 292) in absolute holism. I would suggest, however, from a Western theological point of view that not an “absence of conflict” notion, but a “greater than the sum of its parts” notion is more appropriate in distinguishing relative holism from absolute holism, or distinguishing wholism from holism. Since Noda's conclusion does not include the “greater than the sum of its parts” notion which characterizes holism, he has, in effect, understood absolute holism as mere wholism.
Cheston, (2000) by introducing an ontological perspective into her argument favours Frost’s notion of wholism and holism. In “Spirituality of encouragement,” she roots her understanding of holism and wholism in Smuts’s thinking and writes, “Smuts's holism is an ontology ‘to express the view that the ultimate reality of the universe is neither matter or spirit but wholes’ (p.117).” (p. 297) In a reply to my question about the distinction between the two, she answered: “I have always agreed that there is a difference between holism and wholism.” Her understanding of the term holism opens the way for a collaborative relationship between psychology and theology in that “encouragement is a bridge between the outer and inner worlds of an individual” (p. 298). She says: “I think that everyone wants to think of spirituality as a counselling issue but few want to acknowledge God in the middle of it so they gravitate to the word wholism.”
Further, she maintains the possibility of the on-going interpretation of an original thinker’s initial notions. Her article supports an Adlerian fifth life task. She writes: "The belief in a transcendent being or energy that causes a person to relate to the cosmos, God, or universal values was a fifth life task that Adler alluded to in his writings and that has been more clearly defined by Mosak and Dreikers (1967/2000)" (p. 301). Gold and Mansager (2000) suggest otherwise and retain only three Adlerian life tasks. (p. 275) My question to her was: "In light of Gold and Mansager’s article, ‘Spirituality: Life Task or Life Process,’ from your perspective, is there less reason to develop Adler's thinking specifically with reference to a spiritual fifth life task?" She replied: "As far as [this] question is concerned, I do believe that we must keep exploring Adlerians' notions of the fifth task and incorporate spirituality as the fifth life task. Jungians agree, too."
Theologians, like psychologists, face the same historical problem. Can the initial ideas or notions of a theologian sustain further development undertaken by their followers? Weaver cites the example of Thomas Aquinas (died 1274) and Suarez (1548-1617). Suarez interpreted scholastic thinking along lines on which St. Thomas himself would most likely not agree. In fact, Weaver (1981) notes that Suarez “departed from Aquinas on some issues and some scholars discern Suarism as a system of its own, even in competition with that of Aquinas” (p. 11). Psychologists are in the same position. Would the initiator of a psychological school of thought agree with current developments carried out by contemporary disciples? Only time will tell how contemporary thinkers will interpret innovative thinkers in theology and psychology.
Watts’ operational definition and characteristics of healthy Christian spirituality fit into Frost’s description of wholism and holism. In his article, “Biblically based spirituality,” Watts, (2000) reminds us of the role of revelation in theology. This perspective is problematic for Adlerians. The Adlerian view purports to be scientific but Watts connects Christian revelation (theology) and Individual Psychology such that “It appears that Jesus is stating that the focus of God’s revelation addresses how people are to be in relationship to God [holism] with their fellow human beings [wholism]” (p. 320). Watts' notions reflect a monistic, not scientific, understanding. He accurately understands Individual Psychology and biblical spirituality as able to “conceptualise humans as creative, holistic, socially oriented, and teleologically motivated (goal-directed)” (p. 319).
Individual Psychology and biblical theology can work collaboratively to the benefit of the believing client. “If they do indeed view the Bible as the Word of God, then facilitating a dialogue between the Bible and their maladaptive beliefs and behaviours often proves helpful” (p. 325). After reading Watts’ article I asked him the following question about the terms wholism and holism. "While you do not use the terms, it seems to me, unless I have misread your position, that in your thinking you intend to transcend those categories. The understanding of God in biblically based Christian spirituality is not equivalent to Adler’s idea of God, which is a social construction (a fiction). Holism/wholism is interpreted from an Adlerian point of view there is no admitting that a personal God (Spirit of God) exists outside one's consciousness. Am I correct in my interpretation here with respect to your position?" His reply supports the thinking of Cheston discussed elsewhere in this article. "In terms of the Adlerian position on holism/wholism, it appears to me that the definition of spirituality set forth by Mosak and Dreikurs is sufficiently broad to allow Adlerians to espouse a personal God-centred holism or a pantheistic (or polytheistic) perspective on holism. Although the philosophical underpinnings of each contain significant differences, the focus on viewing humans as holistic or indivisible beings remains similar."
There is a possibility of a new understanding of the transcendent in the immanent within Adlerian psychology or because of Adlerian psychology. Rather than interpret the Deity pantheistically, we may understand the notion of the transcendent as being within the immanent. This requires a phenomenological understanding, not a speculative interpretation. A phenomenological understanding is required to realise a “God-centred holism.” Adler’s understanding can help us develop out of a pantheistic mind-set even though Adler conceived God only as a useful fiction.
Like Cheston, Watts uses the potential of Adlerian thinking to develop the understanding of spirituality beyond the three stages to which Gold and Mansager limit Adler's notions. Watts’ purpose is to show how Adlerian thinking is amenable to working with clients who subscribe to a Biblical understanding of spirituality. Slavik (2000) begs the question of wholism and holism from within an Adlerian understanding in his article, “The subject matter of Individual Psychology.” In his discussion he addresses the idea of persons conceived by Adler as units [wholes]. Slavik writes thus introducing the holistic aspect of Adler’s thought: “This defining formulation of unity, that the person is actively oriented to the future and acting within a social field, is of interest here.” Slavik suggests that it appears that Adler’s thinking is in agreement with Frost’s (1999) understanding rather than Corsini’s (1999) definition of wholism and holism. Slavik accepts Smuts’ understanding that a social field is a subjective reality limited to the inner area of a conscious individual. Slavik makes distinctions that can be understood to be referring to a conscious individual [wholistically understood] within a social field [holistically understood]. The person is "the active element in the social field, the entity that interacts meaningfully in the field with others, that is in motion, directed and purposive organized and with goals. The person does not exist outside of the field" (p. 39).
The relationship that exists between the person and the social field is such that one cannot exist without the other. In this context, the distinction between wholism and holism is problematic for the psychologist and theologian. Does a person’s social field comprise the sum total of reality? If so, ought it not be considered holistic, not wholistic? Also, if the social field determines the personality, what is determined by a collection of social fields?
Theologians are tempted to appeal to revelation, to something outside the social field, to complete the constitution of the person as a whole. Does a collection of wholes become a social field constituting an Absolute Whole? In this understanding some theologians may consider the notion of the “person” of God being co-terminus with the social field (an Adlerian notion). In the minds of most Christian theologians, however, this is pantheistic thinking and unacceptable. Could a holistic way of thinking include immanence and transcendence, in a non-dualistic way of understanding? In Christian theology, a strong existential argument resists the acceptance of God restricted to a social field. Being restricted to a social field is tantamount to a denial of revelation.
In reply to my question: “Does consciousness arise in the social field?” Slavik wrote: "consciousness requires a social field to come into being…. So the social field is necessary for consciousness to develop.” The consciously creative person selects values from the social field by which he or she is created. This situates Slavik’s thinking, theologically speaking, in the nineteenth-century German idealist's perspective. Dulles (1969) writes that idealist philosophical and historical thinking has re-structured theological ways of thinking. "The nineteenth century presents an extremely rich development of the history of revelation under the stimulating impact of idealistic philosophy on the one hand and of historical thinking on the other. Idealist philosophy, rebelling against the narrowness of eighteenth-century Rationalism, discovered the Absolute in a new way. Historical thinking, on the contrary, made theologians conscious of the cultural relativity of their ideas about God" (p.62).
This restructuring of thinking opens the way for collaboration between psychology and theology.
Conclusion
Critical collaboration, a notion first suggested to me by Mansager (2001), requires that psychologists study theologians and that theologians study psychologists. Smuts lays a foundation for thinking phenomenologically, not speculatively, about wholism and holism. Through the notions of wholism and holism I presented a reflection on the thinking of various Adlerian psychologists. The following is a summary of my fledgling attempt at critical collaboration by a theologian.
Vande Kemp shows what the disciplines of psychology and theology can contribute holistically to a collaborative effort from their respective anthropologies. Gold and Mansager understand spirituality, holistically, and as a focal point for both disciplines, whereas Ellis offers a non-religious humanist, wholistic, perspective which takes no account of the transcendent. Noda, by introducing an Oriental perspective allows for the possibility of understanding the person wholistically and avoiding the dichotomy which is preserved in Western intellectual thinking. Cheston understands Adlerian thinking as opening the way to holistic development of the person that goes beyond Adler’s original thinking. Watts relates scripture to Individual Psychology and introduces the holistic notion revelation which is not in Adler’s original thinking. Slavik understands the person, not as a classical ideal concept, but as a dynamic unit formed holistically within a social field. The abiding aspect of the person, he understands, is a wholistic consciousness.
The potential to continue critical collaboration exists when psychologists and theologians study original thinkers reciprocally. The individual, not the disciplines, should be the focus; disciplines change (hence the possibility of collaboration) but the individual (principle of human and divine life) abides.
REFERENCES
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Theological Reflections on E. O. Wilson's "Consilience"
(Originally published in Explorations: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 2000, Vol. 18, n. 3, pp. 5–9.)
This book is a tease, an exciting read, and makes a valuable contribution to the continuing scientific efforts to understand ourselves. However, the book's journalistic style leads the reader, at times, to appreciate its popular rather than scientific character. These theological reflections are more accurately ‘theological reactions.’ They are a more or less impromptu assessment of and reaction to Wilson's ideas.
In Chapter 1, Wilson suggests that we ought to accept the objective reality of scientific thinking rather than revelation to satisfy our religious hunger. He rejects the idea that there is an independent facet to reality and believes that ultimately reality, including spiritual reality, originates in physical matter. In Chapter 2 of his book he suggests that consilience understood as a metaphysical world view is the way to satisfy religious hunger. In Chapter 3, entitled The Enlightenment, he states that what we are and how we think are the products of evolution, not the purpose of evolution. This suggests that no outside agent directs evolution. Wilson makes two very insightful and worthwhile suggestions in Chapter 4. First, he suggests dividing humanity into scientific and prescientific cultures. Secondly, he suggests that science is not a philosophy or belief system but a combination of a mental operations. Scientific and prescientific cultures as a dividing point and science as a combination of mental operations offer two new ways to understand human development. Wilson suggests that science diagnoses and realigns the misalignment of outer reality and its representation in the mind. Prior to the Enlightenment this task had traditionally belonged to theology and philosophy. Since the Enlightenment the secular sciences have undertaken the task as well. Further, Wilson believes that theology has defaulted in its task. Chapter 6 presents two challenging, but disturbing, thoughts to traditional thinking. First, that mental processes have a physical grounding and second, that the brain has been assembled to survive rather than understand itself These thoughts challenge long–held philosophical and theological beliefs about the constitution of the human brain and mind. In Chapter 7 Wilson suggests that a causal explanatory network, known as consilience, ought to be applied to the natural and social sciences to aid in the ‘unity of knowledge,’ which he has given as the subtitle to his book.
In effect, Chapters 1 through 7, provide grist for the mill. They provide an opportunity to investigate a possible union of knowledge between the natural sciences and social sciences.
In Chapter 8, The Fitness of Human Nature. Wilson discusses nothing new from a theological point of view. He attempts to account for human nature solely within the physical order, that is, without positing an independent (separate) spiritual or transcendent order in his attempt. Similar philosophical undertakings have been attempted in the past. These attempts, known as materialism or positivism, suggest that the highest form of knowledge is a description of sensory phenomena. Wilson’s book is a variation on this theme. He says that with the science and arts combined, we have it all and that “the archaic world of myth and passion ... can be understood more completely as a physical entity” (Wilson 1998:237). Rather than Wilson’s approach, there is a more appropriate approach to understanding knowledge in its scientific and theological forms. Watts and Williams (1988) explore scientific and theological knowledge in their book, The Psychology of Religious Knowing. Unlike Wilson, they do not conclude that religious knowing is rooted in the physical but rather that: “Religious knowing involves, not so much coming to know a separate religious world, as coming to know the religious dimension of the everyday world” (Watts & Williams 1988: 151). The religious dimension is a correlation of the everyday (physical) world, but not necessarily rooted in it.
In Chapter 9, The Social Sciences, WiIson writes: “Discourse among scholars, in short, can proceed without worrying about consilience…but to resist linking discoveries by causal explanation is to diminish their credibility” (WiIson 1998: 190). To remove theology, which WiIson believes provides no causal explanation, as a knowledge system from his explanation and understanding of consilience does not necessarily improve credibility. Diminished credibility among the scholars does not come about through their resistance to consilience but rather from the impoverished way scholars have understood or interpreted knowledge systems. Improved credibility comes by way of re-interpretation, not deletion. In fact, consilience in its parsimonious attempt to understand ourselves may have lead thinkers into the trap of reductionism,
WiIson articulates a very convincing theory in Chapter 10, The Arts and Their Interpretation, in which he outlines an holistic methodology for science. However, in keeping with his position of deleting transcendental philosophies from his schema he omits an organized faith life from his list of most distinctive human qualities. He writes: “The most distinctive qualities of the human species are extremely high intelligence, language, culture, and reliance on long-term social contracts” (WiIson 1998:224). To my mind, the lack of an organized faith life as a distinctive quality suggests that his methodology is somewhat less than holistic.
In Chapter 11, Ethics and Religion, WiIson makes no distinction between ethics and morality. This may be defensible, in his case, since by his own admission, he “had been raised a Southern Baptist” (WiIson 1988:5). As such, he may have been raised in a tradition which does not appreciate the classical theological distinction between ethics and moral theology. Bullock and Stallybrass (1977:401) define moral theology as: “A term, more familiar in Catholicism than in Protestantism, covering the discussion of the relevance of religious, especially Christian, belief to ethical problems.” One must, therefore, interpret Wilson's thinking and such conclusions as: “And to be as fair as possible, I have drawn [theistic and empiricist] arguments from the most closely reasoned sources in theology and philosophy of which I am aware” (Wilson 1998:241); in light of his own theological or religious upbringing in the Protestant tradition.
Wilson’s final chapter, To What End, restricts the notion of humanity to the development of the laws of physics. This is somewhat disappointing in light of the strides made in philosophical and theological understanding in Christian thinking since the Second Vatican Council. In short, the causal schema advocated by Wilson does not put human understanding any further ahead but keeps it confined. to a less sophisticated philosophical and theological way of thinking. Notwithstanding Frost’s (1998) positive and rather favourable interpretation of this chapter, were scientists and theologians to follow Wilson's model they would be in danger of ultimately truncating knowledge. Frost (1998:41) writes: “Reality is not centered on human life, but reality and life find a centeredness in us.” To what degree this understanding is compatible with Wilson's (1998:266) statement: “The central idea of the consilience world view is that all tangible phenomena, from the birth of stars to the workings of social institutions, are based on material processes that are ultimately reducible, however long and tortuous the sequences, to the laws of physics”, is debatable. I would doubt that humanity, as a tangible phenomenon, can be reduced to the development of the laws of physics.
From a theological perspective, however, Wilson does make a very encouraging comment. “Profession-bent students should be helped to understand that in the twenty-first century the world will not be run by those who possess mere information alone .... We are drowning in information, while starving for wisdom” (Wilson 1998:269).
As Wilson suggests, the case may be made that theology has done poorly in the modem world when it comes to probing the wisdom of creation and the mind of God. However, there is hope that a re-evaluation of the relationship between theology and the social sciences may offer more substantial clues to the human condition in its physical and transcendental aspects. As Wilson says in his concluding sentences to Chapter Five, Ariadne’s Thread: “In time, to complete the biblical allusion, we will come face to face with it all -- and perhaps see it clearly” (Wilson 1998:95). One wonders, however, if in the meantime what we ought to seek is a ‘unity of wisdom’ arising from a ‘union of knowledge’ rather than Wilson's notion of ‘unity of knowledge’ arising from Consilience.
REFERENCES
Bullock A & Stallybrass 0, 1977. s v “moral theology.” The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought.
Frost, W 1998. Ecological Consciousness in Edward O. Wilson’s CONSILIENCE: Commentary on the final Chapter: “To What End?” EXPLORATIONS: Journal for Adventurous Thought, 17(2), 35-42.
Watts, F & Williams, M 1988. The psychology of religious knowing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, E 1998. CONSILIENCE: The unity of knowledge. New York: Alfred Knoff.
BOOKS AUTHORED
(Scroll down for description of contents)
[1] Leslie Dewart (1922-2009) Canada’s Forgotten Theological Philosopher: A Review of His Major Works
[2] Critical Thinkers on the Threshold of Posthuman Philosophy: William Gladstone & George Tyrrell
[3] Reconstruction in Western Theism: A Phenomenological Approach
[4] Reflections on Ecological Philosophy: In Light of Dehellenized Western Theism
[5] Posthuman Theological Reflections
[6] Beyond the Breakwater: Venturing into Posthuman Philosophical Waters
[7] Philosophical Memoires: Constructing Christian Theology in the Contemporary World
[8] Faith and Queer Consciousness: Philosophical Thinking in a New Key
[9] Philosophical Monographs Vol. 1
[10] Philosophical Monographs Vol. 2
[11] Philosophy is a Destabilizing Inquiry
[12] A Phenomenological Understanding of Certain Liturgical Texts: The Anglican Collects for Advent and the Roman Catholic Collects for Lent
[13] Faith, Hope and Charity as Character Traits in Adler’s Individual Psychology: With Related Essays in Spirituality and Phenomenology.
[14] Ecological Philosophy and Christian Theology: A "New to You" View
[15] A Contemporary Understanding of Religious Belief Within Mental Health
[16] The Ecology: A “New to You” View: An Orthodox Theological Ecology
[17] The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Quebec Experience
[18] The Avant-Garde Theology of George Tyrrell: Its Philosophical Roots Changed My Theological Thinking
[19] Vatican II: Theology in a Secular World: Exploratory Essays in Catholicity [1956-1967]
[20] Dehellenization and Dr Dewart Revisited: A First-Person Philosophical Reflection
[21] Phenomenological Philosophy and Reconstruction in Western Theism
[22] On Posthuman Theism: “God Consciousness” and Leslie Dewart (1922-2009)
[23] A Future for Disbelief? Philosophy in a Dehellenized Age with Implications for Theology
[24] Religion and Governance: Re-thinking the American Perspective
[25] Phenomenology and Social Construction Within Orthodox Theology: S. T. D. Thesis (2007)
[26] Alfred Adler and the Theological Virtues M.Th. Thesis (1989)
[27] Credo: I Believe in Ontario’s Common Curriculum
[28] Ecclesial Reflections: Three Contemporary Essays
- [1] Leslie Dewart (1922-2009) Canada's Forgotten Theological Philosopher
- A Review of His Major Works
- Date: 2020
- Free copy at acdemia.edu.
- Free copy at Internet Archive.
- In the course of my presentation of Dewart’s philosophy in this book, I shall note particular insights of two other thinkers, whose religious philosophy I accept as dehellenized in Dewart’s meaning of the term. Auguste Sabatier (1839-1901) and Paul Trudinger, (1930-) never employ the term as far as I can determine. Both Sabatier and Trudinger base their philosophical interpretation on experience. Both suggest that one must often decide against what one had been taught by religious authorities of their day. Trudinger gives examples from his belief in the Christian Creed and Sabatier gives examples from the philosophy and theology of the French Protestant Church in his time. For Trudinger, the decision against one’s earlier instruction is a “shift in faith,” not a “loss of faith.” For Sabatier, “autonomy, in action, transforms authority by gradually displacing its seat. So much the more does authority contribute to the development of autonomy. From their interaction results the progress of humanity.” To my mind, both philosophical attitudes, Trudinger’s “shift in faith” and Sabatier’s “active autonomy,” are what Dewart describes as dehellenization of the philosophical attitude, in a positive sense.
- CONTENTS
- 1. Giving Dewart a context
- 2. The development of Karl Pearson’s scientific philosophy
- 3. Christianity and Revolution: The lesson of Cuba
- 4. The future of belief: Theism in a world come of age
- 5. Foundations of belief
- 6. Religion, language and truth
- 7. Evolution and consciousness: The role of speech in the origin and in and development of human nature
- 8. Hume’s challenge and the renewal of modern philosophy
- 9. A recapitulation of Dewart's dehellenization
- 10. A fictitious interview with Leslie Dewart
- 11. Posthuman Belief
[2] Critical Thinkers on the Threshold of Posthuman Philosophy
William Gladstone & George Tyrrell
Date: 2006
Revised & Expanded: 2021
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
In this essay I contemplate the possibility of posthuman philosophy within the religious and theological schools of thought. In doing this, I do not focus on the traditional philosophical humanism which characterizes the scholastic and neo-scholastic approach within Western philosophy. Rather, I focus on a “dehellenized” philosophical way of thinking that, I hold, characterizes the thresholds of a philosophical consciousness. That is to say, the Hellenistic philosophical principles that support Western humanism, are not used to support my understanding of a philosophy appropriate to posthumanity. As an existential philosopher, with a view to evolving as a posthuman philosopher, I evaluate aspects of the philosophical consciousness of William Gladstone (1809-1898) a politician and George Tyrrell, a theologian, in terms of both humanism and posthumanism from a phenomenological perspective. I realize that the phenomenological notion of humanity (in contrast to the classical idea of humanism) may not be adequately grasped by all philosophers. It seems to me that although many professionals appear to be somewhat conversant with general philosophical and theological notions that are pertinent to humanity, they nonetheless are struggling to clarify their understanding of an emerging posthuman philosophy.
CONTENTS
1. Background
2. Theologizing Outside the Guild
3. Five Perspectives on a Posthuman Philosophical Threshold
4. The Ordinary Theology of William Gladstone and George Tyrrell
5. Conclusion
6. Addendum: So, What’s “Post” in Posthumanity?
7. Glossary of Terms
[3] Reconstruction in Western Theism: A Phenomenological Approach
[Revised, expanded and re-titled edition of Phenomenological Philosophy and Reconstruction in Western Theism, published in 2010 by Westbow Press A Division of Thomas Nelson, Bloomington, IN, USA]
Date: 2021
Free copy at academic.edu
Free copy at Internet archive
WORLDCAT Link:
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/848689569
This book is a contribution to the existing body of philosophical and theological thought. It is a personal account, not an historical account or chronological one. The approach taken reflects the metamorphosis from a classical to a contemporary view of theology. The book is an excellent tool, one which faithfully reflects the word of God. It stresses that through personal engagement with the spirit of God one may begin to understand religious experience, thereby enabling one’s personal faith conviction. The primary purpose of theological study is spiritual growth, while intellectual understanding is of secondary importance. The deepening of theological understanding, it appears, has been achieved not by ecclesiastical officials, but by faithful individuals sometimes even in opposition to official interpretation. Furthermore, individuals need to accept their co-creative relationships with that which is divine. A viable future Church must relinquish its hold on sovereignty and centralization and institute a decision-making procedure through the principle of subsidiarity. An incursion into the Modernist movement clarifies new interpretations within theological thinking illuminating the potential development in the future Church. This book passes as not only an informative guide to reflection on the interpretation of truth, but serves as a must read for any serious student of theology, which compels the reader to examine his or her own life in the search for truth.
CONTENTS
Original Foreword (J. Bishop)
New Foreword (P. Groulx)
Preface
INTRODUCTION
THEISTIC THEOLOGY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE WORD OF GOD
THE EXISTENTIAL SITUATION IN WHICH I FIND MYSELF
Theology at the Service of the Individual in Community
CHRISTIAN CULTURE: ITS PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS AND PRESENT CRISIS
The Aims and the Assumptions of Christian Culture
RECONSTRUCTION IN THEISTIC THEOLOGY
THRESHOLDS OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL
THEOLOGICAL INQUIRY
Phenomenological Philosophical Inquiry
Phenomenological Thresholds within the Modernist Movement
Poetic Thresholds of Phenomenological Theological Inquiry
PARTICULAR THRESHOLDS OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL INQUIRY
First Threshold: Universal Interpretation Shifts to Particular Understanding
Second Threshold: Classical Knowledge Shifts to Phenomenological Knowledge
Third Threshold: Idealistic Language and Interpretation Shifts to Participatory/Poetic Language and Interpretation
PHENOMENOLOGY AND CATHOLICITY IN VATICAN II: A BROAD CRITICISM
Phenomenological Understanding of the Church as Theological Mystery
Phenomenological Theology and the People of God: The Ecclesia
The Development of my Christian Understanding
The Underdevelopment of my Christian Theism
The Phenomenological Development of my Christian Theism
Critic’s Remarks: Peter Stuart
[4] Reflections on Ecological Philosophy
In Light of Dehellenized Western Theism
Date: 2020
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
This book is intended for the serious reader of Western philosophy. It is not an introductory text to philosophical interpretation, but a reflection by a philosopher who accepts that he is living at a threshold of a posthuman philosophical movement in the Anglo-American context. The book is written from a phenomenological philosophical perspective, rather than an analytical perspective rooted in Hellenistic metaphysical philosophy. It is written to illustrate an alternative approach to understanding a contemporary social issue – the treatment of the human environment – from a philosophical perspective rather than from that of the modern sciences. It is divided into two parts that initially may seem unrelated. The first part is an introduction to the background that has given the rationale for writing the second part. Together, from reading both parts, one may recognize that the treatment of the environment must include the spiritual as well as the physical aspect that constitute the human environment. Such is a premise of this book.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY PREAMBLE
1. A point of departure for posthuman philosophy
2. Self-consciousness and phenomenological interpretation
3. The separation of philosophy and science
4. Philosophical posthuman theism
5. The shift to posthuman theism
6. Philosophy in a new key
A FICTITIOUS INTERVIEW WITH DR DEWART
7.1 Christian theism and contemporary experience
7.2 The development of Christian Theism
7.3 The underdevelopment of Christian Theism
REFLECTIONS ON WESTERN ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY
1. Introduction to the subject
WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY?
1.1 The key to understanding ecological philosophy
1.2 The focus matter of ecological philosophy
1.3 Methodology in ecological philosophy
1.4 The design of an ecological philosophy
1.5 The normative character of ecological philosophy
1.6 Critical understanding in ecological philosophy
1.7 A phenomenological understanding of ecological philosophy
1.8 Humanitarianism and ecological philosophy
1.9 The philosophical evolution of ecological awareness
1.10 The socio-cultural origin of ecological awareness
1.11 Summary
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ECO-PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTIONS
2.1 A phenomenological eco-philosophical consciousness
2.2 An eco-philosophical theological inquiry
2.3 An eco-philosophical reflection: Scholastic apprehension shifts to phenomenological interpretation
2.4 An eco-philosophical reflection: Dichotomous knowledge shifts to unitary knowledge
2.5 An eco-philosophical reflection: Idealistic language shifts to participatory knowledge
2.6 Summary
[5] Posthuman Theological Reflections
Date: 2019
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
This is a book on what I understand to be exploratory of posthuman philosophy. It is not a book on posthumanism, but rather interprets the pre-existing philosophical developments that lead up to the phenomenon of posthumanity. Posthuman philosophy is a contemporary philosophy that does not rely on the principles of ancient Greek metaphysics for its foundational principles of knowledge. Classical Western philosophy, i.e. scholasticism, heavily influenced by Hellenistic thought placed emphasis on reason as the distinguishing quality of mind that separated the human being from the animal being. Without denying reason, phenomenology (a posthuman philosophy) specifies the human being as a self-conscious human agent who directs the evolution of its lived-in environment. By this self-conscious direction of their environment human agents have “surpassed” the humanism of the Renaissance as well as the humanism of the secular Western culture and now stands on the threshold of a new stage of the evolutionary process of human thought, hence the term “posthuman.”
TOPICS
1. The genesis of this brief book
2. A point of departure for posthuman theology
3. A recasting of the issues
4. The philosophical question I address
5. Further philosophizing on life
6. Reflections outside the theological guild & self-tutoring in theology
7. Philosophy of the theological type
8. Introduction to dehellenization: a personal process of constructing Christian theology
9. Phenomenological philosophy in the church
10. Preoccupations of a theological philosophy
11. A personal process of constructing a theological philosophy
ESSAYS
1. Thinking through faith – some philosophical convictions of Leslie Dewart
2. On George Tyrrell: What he said he said in the prefaces of his books
3. Book reviews on George Tyrrell
[6] Beyond the Breakwater
Venturing into Posthuman Philosophical Waters
Date: 2020
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
This book is not a devotional or pious work, nor is it a professional academic work. It is intended as an address to the educated and philosophically interested reader as well as the seasoned and possibly disaffected religious thinker. In short, it is an attempt to satisfy the human intellect in contemplating philosophical and theological notions where traditional understanding seems to have failed.
CONTENTS
PHILOSOPHY
1. My rationale for this book
2. The stagnation of philosophy
3. The philosopher in community
4. Philosophical dehellenization
5. Philosophy and science
THEOLOGY
6. Introduction to theology
7. Theological formulation
8. Theology outside a guild
9. A personal process of formulating posthuman theology
POSTHUMANITY
10. A posthuman philosophical blueprint
11. Posthuman phenomenological consciousness (as part of a posthuman philosophical blueprint)
12. A process of posthuman theologizing
13. A posthuman consciousness (as part of a process of posthuman theologizing)
14. A posthuman consciousness of God
15. The spirit of Christ in posthuman consciousness
16. Deepening posthuman consciousness
17. Preliminaries to posthuman thresholds
18. Posthuman identity
[7] Philosophical Memoires
Constructing Christian Theology in the Contemporary World
Date: 2013
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
WORLDCAT Link:
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437034724
In this book I discuss the philosophical construction of Christian theology from a subjective point of view. I follow an existential approach and rely on my experience to give direction to my thought. Drawing on insights from Dr. Leslie Dewart, I recast the ideas and notions inherited from the Hellenist philosophical tradition and present two "case studies" that illustrate the role of a dehellenized philosophy in the construction of contemporary Christian theology. These two case studies, the first "dehellenization" and the second "Orthodox Canon Law" are deliberately poles apart to show that phenomenological theological construction, which transcends the conditions of time and culture, can assist in solving these contemporary theological problems.
CONTENTS
PART ONE
MY PERSONAL PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
Section I
1. Introduction
2. An Understanding of Theology
3. My Personal Approach to Theology
4. The Existential Situation in Which I Find Myself
5. Theology and the Individual in Community
Section II
DEHELLENIZATION: THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
6. A Personal Reflection
7. Dehellenization and Theological Construction
8. Dehellenization and Becoming Aware of God
9. Dehellenization and Believing
10. Dehellenization and Remembering
11. Dehellenization and Watching and Waiting
PART TWO
Section III
CONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY:
THE CONTRIBUTION OF GEORGE TYRRELL
(1861 – 1909)
Section IV
CONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY AND ORTHODOX CANON LAW
12. Introduction
13. Theological Construction and the Philosophical
14. Purpose of Canon Law
15. Theological Construction and the Origin of Canon Law in the Will of God
16. Theological Construction and Time in Canon Law
17. Theological Construction and Canon Law in Discipline and Conscience
18. Theological Construction and Everyday Life in Orthodox Canon Law
[8] FAITH AND QUEER CONSCIOUSNESS: Philosophical Thinking in a New Key
Date: 2018
Free download at Internet Archive.
Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036102609
This is a book on Western philosophy. And in the Western tradition philosophy can serve theology as theologians know. My thinking is philosophical and at the same time is related to theology. While the two are distinct within a Western religious context they are not unrelated as some contemporary philosophers might suggest. However, I contend that philosophy, as an intellectual tool, when used within theological interpretation could help anyone seeking knowledge of queer issues in a religious context. In that case, individuals must look at themselves and perceive more than what lies on the surface of their experience. They must take into account their evolutionary history, overcome the negative consequences of past failures in life's tasks, and subsequently reorient themselves to the future. In this effort, they would be philosophizing in a new key. Philosophizing in a new key means that the sexual peculiarities of human nature are to be recognized and respected in light of LGBTQ issues. This recognition of sexual peculiarities and subsequent respect for human nature have significant consequences for the gay person.
CONTENTS
1. Prefatory Note
2. Summation of “Faith and Queer Consciousness”
FAITH AND QUEER CONSCIOUSNESS
3. Rationale
4. An Introduction to Faith and Queer Consciousness
5. Some Queer Stories
6. Where to Begin?
7. Now, Is There Sin in Queer Consciousness?
8. The Separation of Philosophy and Science
9. Consciousness: A Metaphysical Understanding
10. Consciousness and Faith
11. The Creed Dehellenized
12. Philosophy in a New Key
13. A Conscious Attempt at Constructing Queer Theology
14. Addendum: Holy Conversations
15. Eclectic Reflections
[9] Philosophical Monographs Vol. 1
Date: 2020
Free copy at academia.edu.
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The essays collected into this volume represent an attempt by the author to philosophize creatively on three different topics; Video Gaming, God, and Philosophical Thought in light of a posthuman understanding. Each has been written from a “dehellenized” point of view which makes them somewhat unconventional in their construction and presentation. Three Essays: Mind Games; God and Posthuman Philosophy; Philosophical Thought.
[10] Philosophical Monographs Vol. 2
Date: 2020
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
The essays collected into this volume represent an attempt by the author to philosophize creatively on four topics: Philosophy, Posthumanity, Ecology, and Adlerian Psychology in light of a posthuman understanding. Each has been written from a “dehellenized” point of view which makes them somewhat unconventional in their construction and presentation. Four Essays: Philosophical Consciousness; So, What's "Post" About Posthumanity; Reflections on Western Ecological Philosophy; Alfred Adler's Social Interest: A Holistic Pastoral Psychology.
[11] Philosophy is a Destabilizing Inquiry
Date: 2021
Free copy at academia.edu.
Free copy at Internet Archive.
I take as a “jumping off place” for this reflection the Conclusion that Werner Brock, (Dr.Phil.) made to his lectures published as An Introduction to Contemporary German Philosophy. [1] Following the observation of J. H. Muirhead in the Foreword, that “readers will draw their own conclusions from his presentation of his subject in this book,” I am sufficiently convinced of the merit of Brock’s lectures that I quote the Conclusion in its entirety as a foundation for the philosophical thinking I develop in this brief book.
(Werner Brock was a lecturer at the University of Freiburg.)
[1] Cambridge University Press, 1935.
CONTENTS
PART ONE
1. Quo Vadis? Where am I Going with This?
2. Philosophy and “Disorganized Knowledge:” An Unconventional Interpretation
3. Some Observations on the Scope of Philosophy
4. Philosophical Speculations in Light of a Posthuman Future
PART TWO
5. Biblical Interpretation Needs Philosophy: A Brief
Unconventional Hermeneutic
6. Addendum: My Philosophical Perspective
7. Appendix
[12] A PHENOMENOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING OF CERTAIN LITURGICAL TEXTS
The Anglican Collects for Advent and the Roman Catholic Collects for Lent
Date: 2001
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47863282
This book examines the philosophical premises underlying the language used in liturgical prayers. Scholastic philosophy, the dominant philosophical perspective in the West, is no longer satisfactory for religious formulation. Phenomenological philosophy appears to be replacing scholastic philosophy in forming and understanding personal and communal religious beliefs. The Collects of the Anglican and Roman Catholic Eucharistic liturgies for Advent and Lent were examined, re-written and "field tested." The focus group, for field testing, was composed of individuals who formally engage in research into spirituality and religious experiences. A Phenomenological Understanding of Certain Liturgical Texts encourages further investigation into the growing use of phenomenology in liturgical understanding based on a discernible trend in this direction.
CONTENTS
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgements
PART ONE
LITURGICAL UNDERSTANDING IN TRANSITION
3. Culture and Society: A Religious Phenomenological Unity
THE NEED FOR AN ALTERNATIVE PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF UNDERSTANDING THE COLLECTS
4. Dissatisfaction Gives Rise to an Alternative Understanding
5. A Phenomenological Alternative
6. A Phenomenological Understanding
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STRUCTURING OF UNDERSTANDING
7. Phenomenological Understanding
8. From Theoretical Language to Participatory Language
9. Participatory Language as Activity
10. An Activity of Understanding Rather Than an Act of Knowing
11. "Error" in Phenomenological Understanding
12. From Theoretical Interpretation to Continual Understanding
PART TWO
THE COLLECTS
13. The Background to the Re-structuring of the Collects
14. The Research Tool
15. The Research Report
16. Independent Critiques
17. A Critical and Practical Theological Reflection
18. Appendix 1. The Anglican Collects
19. Appendix 2. The Roman Catholic Collects
[13] FAITH, HOPE AND CHARITY AS CHARACTER TRAITS IN ADLER'S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
With Related Essays in Spirituality and Phenomenology.
[Co-author Sheldon William Nicholl. Contribution by Erik Mansager.]
Date: 2003
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606986852
In Part One, Sheldon Nicholl offers an outline of Adler's life and the basics of his Individual Psychology. Allan Savage examines the relationship between Individual Psychology and Pastoral Theology. Special attention is given to the role of cognitive therapy. The cardinal virtues of faith, hope and charity are explored, in some detail, in the context of Adler's Individual Psychology. As character traits they are found to be in accord with the development of Adler's notion of Gemeinschaftsgefühl. Part Two is a compilation of previously published essays in American and British journals. One section consists of a set of six exchanges between Erik Mansager and Allan Savage over the concept of "critical collaboration." Other previously published essays by Savage incorporate Adlerian themes. However, the final chapter is not specifically Adlerian in content. Since the root of Adler's Individual Psychology is anchored in German philosophical thought of the early 1900's this chapter explores notions derived from the later Heidegger and the thought of Husserl.
CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
PART ONE
FAITH, HOPE AND CHARITY AS CHARACTER TRAITS IN ADLER'S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. Alfred Adler: His Life, a Model of the Theory
2. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler
3. Individual Psychology and Pastoral Theology
4. Cognitive Therapy and Pastoral Theology
5. The Virtues: Faith, Hope and Charity
6. Bibliography
PART TWO
RELATED ESSAYS IN PHENOMENOLOGY AND SPIRITUALITY
7. Exercise in Critical Collaboration between Erik Mansager and Allan Savage
Adlerian Psychology and Spirituality in Critical Collaboration (Mansager)
Remarks Concerning Erik Mansager's Article (Savage)
Reply to Allan Savage's Comments (Mansager)
The Spiritual Aspect of Adlerian Psychology and the Theological Virtues (Savage)
Remarks Concerning Allan Savage's Article (Mansager)
Reply to Erik Mansager's Comments (Savage)
8. Essays in Adlerian Spirituality by Allan Savage
Adlerian Spirituality and Stewardship in the Thinking of HRH The Prince of Wales
Religious Belief and Adler's Social Interest
Wholism or Holism in Individual Psychology and Theology
Close Encounters of the Theological Kind
The Philosophical Context of Adler's Individual Psychology
9. Phenomenological Thresholds of Theological Inquiry
10. Glossary of Terms
[14] ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY: A "New to You" View
Date: 2006
Free download at academia.edu.
Free eBook at Lulu.
(abridged edition)
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71246178
This book does not debunk, defend or criticize either philosophy or theology but examines the relationship between philosophy and theology and develops an understanding that gives meaning to human activity.
CONTENTS
Chapter One
WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY?
1.1 The key to understanding ecological philosophy
1.2 The subject-matter of ecological philosophy
1.3 Methodology in ecological philosophy
1.4 The design of an ecological philosophy
1.5 The normative character of ecological philosophy
1.6 Critical understanding in ecological philosophy
1.7 A phenomenological understanding of ecological philosophy
1.8 Humanitarianism and ecological philosophy
1.9 The philosophical evolution of ecological awareness
1.10 The socio-cultural origin of ecological awareness
1.11 Summary
CHAPTER TWO
AN ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
2.1 A phenomenological eco-philosophical approach
2.2 An eco-philosophical theological inquiry
2.3 An Eco-philosophical Reflection: Scholastic interpretation shifts to phenomenological apprehension
2.4 Eco-philosophical reflection: Dichotomous knowledge shifts to unitary knowledge
2.5 An eco-philosophical reflection: Idealistic language shifts to participatory language
2.6 Summary
[15]
A CONTEMPORARY UNDERSTANDING OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF WITHIN MENTAL HEALTH
Date: 2007
WORLDCAT Link:
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/166381612
This short book suggests the need for psychiatrists to work with the knowledge of theology so that mentally ill patients who hold strong religious beliefs may receive appropriate treatment. The work is introduced by discussing the definition of mental illness, the meaning of religious belief in modern society and the view that psychiatry has of it. The Author states that Theology can make a significant contribution to the integration of mental health and religious belief . Reverend Savage promotes the phenomenological approach to understanding religious belief, an approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience. He claims that secularisation in modern society has caused a fracture between religion and spirituality . He then discusses how society influences the form that religious belief takes and how it decides what is or what is not normal. The author explains how psychiatry is a combination of psychoanalysis and the chemical management of neurological processes. It is debatable whether general practitioners should prescribe antidepressants without the prior consultation with a psychiatrist. The role of the psychiatrist seems to be diminishing, but there is no question that for the near future the psychiatrist will remain a moral agent on behalf of the community ; a position that was traditionally held by priests. Reverend Savage writes in a very learned style and his book may be a useful addition to the bookshelves of undergraduate as well as practising psychiatrists.
Table of Contents unavailable
[16] THE ECOLOGY: A 'NEW TO YOU' VIEW: An Orthodox Theological Ecology
Date: 2009
Free download at academia.edu.
Free download at Internet Archive as Phenomenology and Social Construction Within Orthodox Theology.
[A dissertation fulfilling the requirements for the degree of Sacrae Theologiae Doctor (Doctorate of Sacred Theology) at the St. Elias School of Orthodox Theology]
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437033617
The ideas presented in this book, in fact, are not new. They represent problems arising from the new orientation of the Western World that followed the Great War of 1914-1918. Much contemporary theology still deals with issues that have been identified as "Modernism" by the ecclesiastical authorities of an earlier day. What is new in this book is a phenomenological theological consideration in the context of a contemporary global ecology, and not in the context of the traditional ecclesiastical politics of Eastern and Western Churches.
CONTENTS
HELLENIST PHILOSOPHY AND THE CRISIS WITHIN ORTHODOXY
1. Dehellenization as a pre-requisite to an Orthodox theological ecology
PHENOMENOLOGY IN ORTHODOX THEOLOGY
1. Phenomenological philosophy and Orthodox theological ecology
2. An Orthodox theologian's interpretation of theological ecology
3. Phenomenological understanding as a pre-requisite for an Orthodox theological ecology
4. The message of an Orthodox theological ecology
WHAT IS ORTHODOX SCIENTIFIC THEOLOGICAL ECOLOGY?
1. The key to understanding an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
2. The subject matter of an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
3. Methodology in an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
4. The design of an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
5. The normative character of an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
6. Humanitarianism and an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
7. The philosophical evolution of an Orthodox scientific theological ecology
8. Summary
APPROACHES APPROPRIATE TO AN ORTHODOX SCIENTIFIC THEOLOGICAL ECOLOGY
1. A phenomenological eco-theological approach: Assigning meaning
2. A phenomenological eco-theological inquiry
3. Eco-theological reflection # 1: Phenomenological intention replaces scholastic interpretation
4. Eco-theological reflection # 2: Unitary knowledge replaces dichotomous knowledge
5. Eco-theological reflection # 3: Participatory language replaces idealistic language
6. Summary
THE FUTURE ORTHODOX SCIENTIFIC THEOLOGY
1. The still undecided position
GLOSSARY of TERMS
[17] THE CATHOLIC FAITH AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RELIGION
With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience
Date: 2011
WORLDCAT Link:
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/763414144
The intent behind this book is to provide grist for the mill for research students and other interested readers. Chapter one, by author Allan Savage, presents an understanding of the social construction of religious activity, which maintains that social construction of religion arises from a dialectical engagement within the world from a phenomenological philosophical point of view. Co-author Peter Stuart presents a classical and traditional point of view, and readers expecting academic accord between the authors will be disappointed. A further rationale for writing this book is that both Savage and Stuart desire to express their personal convictions in the public forum. Both have interests in the ebb and flow of civilization, especially as it pertains to the place of faith, religion, politics, and a variety of social phenomena, including economics, culture, gender, ethnicity, and the family, as well as the ebb and flow of money, power, property, and prestige, as articulated throughout history. They believe that writing about the place of faith and religion in French Canada is crucial if one is to understand the place that this ‘keystone’ civilization occupies within confederation and its enduring ambivalence regarding its belonging, or not, to Canada.
CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
THE SOCIAL CONTSTRUCTION OF RELIGION
1. Special Characteristics of the Social Construction of Religion
2. The Experience of the Social Construction of Religion
AN EXERCISE IN CRITICAL COLLABORATION BETWEEN ALLAN SAVAGE AND PETER STUART
1. The Roman Catholic Faith in Québec as articulated through the church: Keystone of "la survivance" being taken away by secularists (Stuart)
2. Remarks concerning Peter Stuart's article (Savage)
3. Reply to Allan Savage's critique (Stuart)
4. Revisiting dehellenization in culture and language (Savage)
5. Critique of Allan Savage's "Revisiting dehellenization in culture and language" (Stuart)
6. Reply to Mr Stuart's critique (Savage)
VARIOUS COMMENTARIES ON THE STATUS OF THE POST-MODERN QUEBEC CIVILIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE EYES OF A NATIVE-BORN ENGLISH-SPEAKING BILINGUAL QUEBECER OF MIXED ANCESTRY
1. Sports, popular music, and comedy: Opiates of a post-modern secular society.
2. Power comes from the barrel of a gun: Thoughts on the FLQ Manifesto, James Cross and Pierre Laporte.
3. No Lévesque without Dorchester: No "survivance" without continuity of history.
4. Le "instant French:" Or how my "jackstrap" taught me the intricacies of bilingualism.
5. Le refus global, 62 ans plus tard: Qu'en est-il aujourd'hui de "la libération et de l'anarchie resplendissante?
6. Le Canada "mauve:" On s'entend que l'on ne s'entend pas
7. Pass-moi un napkin, S.V.P.: Or, Pass me a serviette, please? Like, what language are we speaking, anyways?
8. Le "divorce de velours" comme modèle potential pour la séparation du Québec?
9. Retournez donc à vos livres d'histoire!
10. Le temps est venu pour le Québec se débarrasse de ses "quistes." Ou, à la recherche d'un radio-oncologue politique qualifié.
11. Notre système de monarchie constitutionnel: Un bien précieux.
12. The bankruptcy of post-modern liberal democratic secular consumerist technocracy: Who says that the management model of the Roman Catholic is as out to lunch as all that?
13. Refus global, sixty-two years later: What has become of "liberation and resplendent anarchy?"
14. Conventional religion's place in our society: What kind of temples do we want? Sears or salvation?
15. Being English in French-Canada: Stranger in a strange land.
16. Un nom: Peter Anthony Stuart: Qu'est-ce ça veut dire au juste?
17. Porter le hijab: Une question de liberté religieuse.
18. Pas de Lévesque sans Dorchester, pas de survivance sans continuité.
19. Richard Martineau: Traïtre à la nation?
20. Louis-Joseph Papineau: Patriote ou traïtre?
21. Libre opinion: Michael Sabia, Bienvenue à bord!
22. "Franc et sans dols," l'héritage de Sir George-Etienne Cartier, Père de la confédération.
23. Des valeurs sûres et solides comme de la pierre.
24. Commémoration du 13 Septebre 1759: Souvenir de la survivance et de la réconciliation.
25. La Reine à Québec? Mais oui!
26. La coalition avec les séparatistes: Une entente avec le diable? Relisez vos livres d'histore!
27. Le moulin à images: Témoin de l'acharnement de James Guthrie Scott.
28. La souveraineté du Québec: Concept désuet dans le contexte d'une conjoncture politico-économique d'intégration Nord-Américaine.
29. Avec le moulin à paroles, on a complètement suprim supprimé un project de société: Le Canada
30. Clericalism in Québec: A thing of the past, or sublimation through technocracy?
31. Hiding behind the sacred veil: The fallacious "religion" of atheistic science.
32. What's in a name? Peter Anthony Stuart: What does it mean, really?
33. Louis-Joseph Papineau: "Patriote" or traitor?
34. Je me souviens: I remember what exactly?
35. The status of the French language in Québec: Under siege, or psychosis of fear?
36. Elvis Gratton is not stupid.
37. The evils of Islam? What about Godless Communism?
38. Wolfe and Montcalm: Conquest, or beginning of a dialogue?
39. Faith-based solutions for a troubled world.
[18] THE 'AVANT-GARDE' THEOLOGY OF GEORGE TYRRELL
Its Philosophical Roots Changed My Theological Thinking
Date: 2012 & 2016
Free download at Internet Archive
Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link:
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/880789572
My contention for many years has been that theological problems are first, and principally philosophical problems and need to be addressed as such. It is unfortunate that, at this time, in the development of religious ideas in the Western context, the place of philosophy in relation to theology seems to have been usurped to a great extent by sociology and psychology. I hold that the needed scientific philosophy must be a reasoned philosophy, but one that is not necessarily rooted in Greek classical thought.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Particular Intellectual Influences in George Tyrrell’s Life
THE PREFACES TO TYRRELL’S BOOKS WITH PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTIONS
1900, Nova et Vetera: Informal Meditations
1901, External Religion: Its Use and Abuse
1902, The Faith of the Millions
1903, The Church and the Future
1903, Lex Orandi or Prayer and Creed
1904, Hard Sayings: A Selection of Meditations and Studies
1906, A Much Abused Letter
1906, Lex Credendi: A Sequel to Lex Orandi
1907, Oil and Wine
1097, Through Scylla and Charybdis or the Old Theology and the New
1909 [1994], Medievalism: A Reply to Cardinal Mercier
1909 [1963], Christianity at the Crossroads
1914, Essays on Faith and Immortality
THE LAST PHASE, 1890-1918
A Point of Departure for My Future of Belief
MY PERSONAL PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTING A CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
Introduction
An Understanding of Theology
My Personal Approach to Theology
The Existential Situation in Which I Find Myself
Theology and the Individual in Community
NOTE on MAUDE PETRE
(contains illustrations)
[19]
VATICAN II: THEOLOGY IN A SECULAR WORLD
Exploratory Essays in Catholicity [1956-1967]
Date: 2014
WORLDCAT Link:
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1041220276
Allan Savage seeks to facilitate access to some of the most progressive thoughts and debates that have been expressed within the Roman Catholic Church. The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism (edited by Christopher Hollis and published by Hawthorn Books, New York, 1966) is composed of scholarly publications of prominent Catholic theologians of the 1950’s. Many of these articles were discussed during the Second Vatican Council which was convened by Pope John XXIII and held from October, 1962 until August, 1965. However, the encyclopedia of 150 volumes covers topics ranging from the meaning of faith and the nature of mysticism to cosmology and sexual morality. The sheer volume of subjects treated and positions taken may discourage the new scholar who faces laborious searches through the two volume index of the encyclopedia.
CONTENTS
Foreword
About this book
Section One: Knowledge and Faith
Vol. 1. The Achievements of Vatican II
Vol. 2. Is Theology a Science?
Vol. 3. The Meaning of Tradition
Vol. 4. What is Dogma?
Vol. 5. Do Dogmas Change?
Vol. 6. What is Faith?
Vol. 7. The Debate on Birth Control
Vol. 8. Myth and Mystery
Vol. 9. Revelation and Reason
Vol. 10. Is There a Christian Theology?
Vol. 11. The Origins of Christian Philosophy
Vol. 12. Medieval Christian Philosophy
Vol. 13. The Basis of Belief
Vol. 14. Christianity and Science
Vol. 15. The God of Reason
Section Two: The Basic Truths
Vol. 16. The Worship of God
Vol. 17. What is the Trinity?
Vol. 18.The Holy Spirit
Vol. 19. The Creation
Vol. 20. The Problem of Evil
Vol. 21. Who is the Devil?
Vol. 22. Freedom and Providence
Vol. 23. The Theology of Grace
Vol. 24. What is the Incarnation?
Vol. 25. What is the Redemption?
Vol. 26. The Communion of Saints
Vol. 27. Faith, Hope and Charity
Vol. 28. Life After Death
Section Three: The Nature of Man
Vol. 29. The Origins of Man
Vol. 30. Evolution
Vol. 31. What is Man?
Vol. 32. What is life?
Vol. 33. Personal Responsibility
Vol. 34. Man and his Environment
Vol. 35. Man and Metaphysics
Vol. 36. Psychical Phenomena
Section Four: The Means of Redemption
Vol. 37. Prayer
Vol. 38. The Nature of Mysticism
Vol. 39. Spiritual Writers of the Early Church
Vol. 40. Spiritual Writes of the Middle Ages
Vol. 41. Post-Reformation Spirituality
Vol. 42. Spiritual Writers in Modern Times
Vol. 43. True and False Possession
Vol. 44. Mary the Mother of God
Vol. 45. The Devotion to Our Lady
Vol. 46. What is a Saint?
Vol. 47. What is an Angel?
Section Five: The Life of Faith
Vol. 48. What is the Church?
Vol. 49. What is a Sacrament?
Vol. 50. Christian Initiation
Vol. 51. Penance and Absolution
Vol. 52. What is the Eucharist?
Vol. 53. What is a Priest?
Vol. 54. Christian Marriage
Vol. 55. Death and the Christian
Vol. 56. What is Christian Life?
Vol. 57. The Enigma of the Stigmata
Vol. 58. Christian Ethics
Vol. 59. Christianity and Money
Section Six: The Word of God
Vol. 60. What is the Bible?
Vol. 61. The Promised Land
Vol. 62. Biblical Archaeology
Vol. 63. Biblical Criticism
Vol. 64. God's Word at Mass
Vol. 65. The Religion of Israel
Vol. 66. The Prophets
Vol. 67. The Sources for the Life of Christ
Vol. 68. The Life of the Lord
Vol. 69. What is the Gospel?
Vol. 70. Saint Paul and His Message
Vol. 71. The Old Testament Apocrypha
Vol. 72. The New Testament Apocrypha
Vol. 73. Judaism
Section Seven: The History of the Church
Vol. 74. Christian Beginnings
Vol. 75. The Dawn of the Middle Ages
Vol. 76. The Early Middle Ages
Vol. 77. The Later Middle Ages
Vol. 78. The Revolt Against the Church
Vol. 79. The Age of Absolutism
Section Eight: The Organization of the Church
Vol. 80. What is Canon Law?
Vol. 81. The Papacy
Vol. 82. The Ecumenical Councils
Vol. 83. What is a Bishop?
Vol. 84. What is a Cardinal?
Vol. 85. Religious Orders of Men
Vol. 86. Religious Orders of Women
Vol. 87. Secular Institutes
Vol. 88. The Catholic Spirit
Section Nine: The Church in the Modern World
Vol. 89. Church and State
Vol. 90. Christianity and Economics
Vol. 91. Atheism
Vol. 92. Catholicism in English-Speaking Lands
Vol. 93. Psychiatry and the Christian
Vol. 94. Technology and Religion
Vol. 95. The Christian and World Integration
Vol. 96. Christianity and Communism
Vol. 97. Christianity and Colonialism
Vol. 98. Holiness in Action
Vol. 99. History of Missions
Vol. 100. Missions in the World Today
Vol. 101. The Contribution of German Catholicism
Vol. 102. The Church's Mission in the World
Vol. 103. The Church and Sex
Vol. 104. The Church and the Workingman
Vol. 105. Christian Charity in Action
Vol. 106. International Morality
Vol. 107. Why We Believe
Section Ten: The Worship of the Church
Vol. 108. The Spirit of Worship
Vol. 109. The Liturgical Books
Vol. 110. History of the Mass
Vol. 111. The Mass in the West
Vol. 112. Eastern Liturgies
Vol. 113. The Christian Calendar
Vol. 114. Vestments and Church Furniture
Vol. 115. The Liturgical Movement
Section Eleven: Catholicism and Literature
Vol. 116. Sacred Languages
Vol. 117. Contemporary Christian Writers
Vol. 118. Christian Poetry
Section Twelve: Catholicism and the Arts
Vol. 119. Modern Christian Literature
Vol. 120. Church Building
Vol. 121. Early Christian Art
Vol. 122. Christian Sculpture
Vol. 123. Modern Christian Art
Vol. 124. Christian Theatre
Vol. 125. Christian Music
Section Thirteen: Catholicism and Science
Vol. 126. Linguistics, Language and Religion
Vol. 127. Cosmology and Christianity
Vol. 128. Nuclear Physics in Peace and War
Vol. 129. Medicine and Morals
Vol. 130. Science and Religion
Vol. 131. Cybernetics
Vol. 132. World Poverty and the Christian
Vol. 133. Man's Intervention in Nature
Section Fourteen: Outside the Church
Vol. 134. The Contemporary Christian
Vol. 135. The Spirit of Eastern Orthodoxy
Vol. 136. Heresies and Heretics
Vol. 137. Protestantism
Vol. 138. Christian Unity
Vol. 139. Christian Sects
Section Fifteen: Non-Christian Beliefs
Vol. 140. Primitive and Prehistoric Religions
Vol. 141. Religions of the Ancient East
Vol. 142. Greek and Roman Religion
Vol. 143. Mohammedanism
Vol. 144. Hinduism
Vol. 145. Buddhism
Vol. 146. Christianity and Other Religions
Section Sixteen: General and Supplementary Volumes
Vol. 147. What is Society?
Vol. 148. Law and Morals
Vols. 149 & 150. Index
[20] DEHELLENIZATION AND DR DEWART REVISITED
A First Person Philosophical Reflection
Dates: 2009 & 2016
Free download at Internet Archive.
Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link:
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437033715
I have written this book as a serious first person reflection on a philosophical topic. I have not made a systematic presentation of ideas or exposé of a body of thought or presented a collection of philosophical ideas. Rather, the book is a brief account of my personal thinking, on the topic of dehellenization, as I remember it, through reading the works of other religious philosophers. Among all the disciplines available to assist theologians in the critical task of collaborative reflection, a scientific philosophy is a most fundamental one. Psychology, sociology, history, anthropology, etc., make a contribution to the task. However, it is only philosophy that is in a uniquely privileged position to undertake the task of critical theological reflection. This is so since the act of philosophizing upon one's experience is universal in the sense that it constitutes human reflection, whereas other disciplines merely augment human reflection.
CONTENTS
Preface
DEWART’S APPROACH TO DEHELLENIZATION
1. Introducing Dr Dewart
2. Christianity and Revolution: Lesson of Cuba (1963)
3. The Future of Belief: Theism in a World Come of Age (1966)
4. The Foundations of Belief (1969)
5. Religion, Language and Truth (1970)
6. Evolution and Consciousness: The Role of Speech in the Origin and Development of Human Nature (1989)
PHILOSOPHICAL DEHELLENIZATION
1. A First Person Scientific Reflection
2. Scientific Philosophy and the Experience of the Individual in Community
GLOSSARY
[21] Phenomenological Philosophy and Reconstruction in Western Theism
Date: 2010
Free download at Internet Archive.
Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/680032772
In this book [an earlier unrevised edition of Reconstruction in Western Theism: A Phenomenological Approach] I discuss philosophical construction of Christian theology from a subjective point of view. I follow an existential approach and rely on my experience to give direction to my thought. Drawing on insights from Dr. Leslie Dewart, I recast the ideas and notions inherited from the Hellenist philosophical tradition and present two "case studies" that illustrate the role of a dehellenized philosophy in the construction of contemporary Christian theology. These two case studies, the first "dehellenization" and the second, "Orthodox Canon Law," are deliberately poles apart to show that phenomenal theological construction which transcends the conditions of time and culture assists in solving these contemporary theological problems.
CONTENTS
Foreword
SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION
THEISTIC THEOLOGY AS RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE WORD OF GOD
THE EXISTENTIAL SITUATION IN WHICH I FIND MYSELF
Theology at the Service of the Individual in Community
CHRISTIAN CULTURE: ITS PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS AND PRESENT CRISIS
The Aims and the Assumptions of Christian Culture
RECONSTRUCTION IN THEISTIC THEOLOGY
SECTION TWO
THRESHOLDS OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEOLOGICAL INQUIRY
Phenomenological Philosophical Inquiry
Phenomenological Thresholds within the Modernist Movement
Poetic Thresholds of Phenomenological Theological Inquiry
PARTICULAR THRESHOLDS OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL INQUIRY
First Threshold: Universal Interpretation Shifts to Particular Understanding
Second Threshold: Classical Knowledge Shifts to Phenomenological Knowledge
Third Threshold: Idealistic Language and Interpretation Shifts to Participatory/Poetic Language and Interpretation
PHENOMENOLOGY AND THE CATHOLICITY OF VATICAN II: A BROAD CRITICISM
Phenomenological Understanding of the Church as Theological Mystery
Phenomenological Theology and the People of God: The Ecclesia
The Development of my Christian Understanding
The Underdevelopment of my Christian Theism
The Phenomenological Development of my Christian Theism
[22] ON POSTHUMAN THEISM:
"God Consciousness" and Leslie Dewart [1922-2009]
Date: 2019
Free download at Internet Archive.
Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1088728817
Basically, what is at stake in posthuman philosophy is a rethinking of the relationship between human agency and the role of technology, environmental and cultural factors which draw together a number of aspects that make up humanity’s 21st Century understanding of reality and cosmology. This book on Dewart’s philosophy links these aspects to their beginnings and investigates the implications for posthuman philosophy particularly in relation to the understanding of God.
CONTENTS
Preamble
PART I
EXISTENTIAL POSTHUMAN PHILOSOPHY
A Phenomenological Posthuman Theism
A Shift to Posthuman Theism
A Posthuman Understanding of Life
A Phenomenological Perspective
PART II
A FICTITIOUS INTERVIEW WITH LESLIE DEWART
Christian Theism and Contemporary Experience
Development of Christian Theism
The Underdevelopment of Christian Theism
PART III
ON THE STAGNATION OF PHILOSOPHY
Interpreting Leslie Dewart
Christianity and Revolution: The Lesson of Cuba
The Future of Belief: Theism in a World Come of Age
The Foundations of Belief
Religion, Language and Truth
Evolution and Consciousness
Hume’s Challenge and the Renewal of Modern Philosophy
[23] A FUTURE FOR DISBELIEF?
Philosophy in a Dehellenized Age with Implications for Theology
Date: 2017
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Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link:
http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036083281
In this work, Allan Savage allows us into his scholarly and inquisitive mind as he retraces his philosophical and theological background, sharing with us, essentially, his conclusions with respect to his personal, spiritual journey. Having found himself in a world being propelled forward by social, cultural and religious change and being unsatisfied with the answers provided by his classical formation, he came to find a home in existential, phenomenological philosophy. Within the Western school of scholastic philosophical thought, he viewed the answers to his questions regarding his personal, contemporary experience as rooted in a static past, one with authoritarian answers assumed to be relevant for all time. (Foreword: Patricia Shallow)
CONTENTS
1. Foreword (Patricia Shallow)
2. An Introductory Note on Theology
3. Ab Initio
4. My Philosophical Life–World
4a. Holism: A New Approach
4b. Understanding God
4c. The Past or the Future
5. The Catholicity of Vatican II and the Church
of the Future
5a. Private Judgment: Catholic and Protestant
5b. Doctrine and Dogma
5c. The Spirit of the Christ
5d. Human Evolution and Salvation History
6. Further Thoughts on My Life–World
6a. Theological Understanding within the Church
6b. Meaning
6c. Thinking Theologically
6d. Dehellenization
6e. Future Considerations
7. The Dehellenization of the Future of My Belief
and Other Topics
7a. Culture
7b. Responsible Freedom
7c. Self–knowledge
7d. My Awareness of God
7e. Theological Dehellenization
7f. Self–differentiation
7g. Christian Status
8. Theology Outside the Theological Guild
9. Closing Reflections
10. Reference List
[24] RELIGION AND GOVERNANCE
Re-thinking the American Perspective
Date: 2017
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WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017041165
Political philosophers today need to re-think the relationship of church and state from a phenomenological perspective. The faithful of any religious system draw their identity from their history, language and cultural experience, not their form of governance. Forms of governance are politically constituted out of a nation’s history and culture, not from the articles of a personal faith. Both religion and governance may be understood today as social activities which are culturally determined and vary according to their time and place. Rather than in the traditional terms of church and state, the issues arising today in the relationship between the church and state may be more satisfactorily addressed by political philosophers from a phenomenological perspective of religion and governance. In this monograph, I focus primarily on the North American context in discussing a relationship between religion and governance.
CONTENTS
Religion and Governance: Reflections on the Separation of Church and State
Religious Freedom in Colonial America and Beyond: Ten Reflections
Vatican II Perspectives on Religion and Governance
Québec: A Study in Religion and Governance
The Lesson of Cuba
Atheism or Antitheism
Bibliography
[25]
PHENOMENOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION WITHIN ORTHODOX THEOLOGY
S. T. D. Thesis (2007)
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Free download at academia.edu.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/961102165
Even though philosophy is of secondary importance within Eastern Orthodox theology, the philosophical perspective held by the theologian affects the theological interpretation given to experience. The philosophical understanding that supports Western contemporary interpretation and social construction of experience is no longer sustainable given the outdated perspective of scholasticism that is dominant in the West. I suggest that an alternative view, a phenomenological method of interpretation, is not only more suitable for Orthodox theological interpretation but that it reflects more accurately the Patristic perspective upon which Orthodox theology depends. To demonstrate this, I investigate two contemporary Orthodox theological issues, Ecology and Canon Law from a phenomenological perspective. Within these topics I investigate language as participatory, not descriptive; epistemology as being, not knowing; and interpretation as continual, not fixed.
CONTENTS
PART ONE
PHENOMENOLOGY IN ORTHODOX THEOLOGY
The Interpretive Phenomenology of the Orthodox Theologian
By Way of Introduction
An Interpretive Phenomenology
An Interpretive Phenomenology and Personal Anxiety
A Phenomenological Interpretive Perspective within Orthodox Theology
A Rationale for a Phenomenological Interpretive Perspective within Orthodox Theology
A Phenomenological Interpretive Perspective is Proper to Orthodox Theology
Three Phenomenological Social Constructions and Their Interpretive Perspectives
Social Construction One: Participatory Language, not Descriptive Language
Social Construction Two: An Epistemology of Being, not an Epistemology of Knowing
Social Construction Three: Continual Interpretation, not Fixed Interpretation
PART TWO
TWO CASE STUDIES IN ORTHODOX THEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
Preamble
FIRST CASE STUDY: ECOLOGICAL THEOLOGY
Ecological Theology: As an Orthodox Phenomenological Social Construction
The Phenomenological Stance as Pre-requisite to Ecological Theology
The Message of an Orthodox Ecological Theology
SECOND CASE STUDY: CANON LAW
The Canons: An Orthodox Phenomenological Social Construction
Orthodox Social Construction One: The Language of Interpretation of the Canons is Participatory Language, not Descriptive Language
Orthodox Social Construction Two: The Epistemology of the Canons is of “Being,” not “Knowing”
Orthodox Social Construction Three: Continual Interpretation, not Fixed Interpretation
PART THREE
PHENOMENOLOGY IN THE FUTURE OF ORTHODOX THEOLOGY
General Summation
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[26] ALFRED ADLER AND THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
M.Th. Thesis (1989)
(Published as: Faith, Hope and Charity: An Adlerian Perspective.)
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WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/863948982
Today, something called “grass roots” theology is being undertaken in many quarters. By that I mean a type of theological thinking that arises out of one’s experience in life. There is a tendency in human experience for acts or actions of an individual to be based on the movement of thought from principle to application. And this principle is very often verified by reason. Whereas, in “grass roots” theology, one moves from experience to reflection, then follows a statement of principle. I have sensed such current critical thinking within a pastoral context. This has motivated me to undertake an investigation, from a pastoral perspective, into the relationship between the theological virtues and Alfred Adler’s thought. Dissatisfaction with philosophical thought as a basis for pastoral theology also prompted me to seek for something suitable in articulating my experience. This basis I believe to be psychology. In the introduction to Faith, Hope and Charity: An Adlerian Perspective, I have attempted an explanation of how I understand this shift from philosophy to psychology as a tool in current theological thought. This shift takes place most evidently in pastoral theology as opposed to speculative theology. Speculative theology will undoubtedly use classical philosophical thinking for some years to come.
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
PART ONE
Psychology and Belief
PART TWO
Faith
Hope
Charity
Conclusion
[27] Credo: I Believe in Ontario's Common Curriculum
Date: 2007
Free eBook at Lulu
This short booklet consists of a collection of reflections for school trustees and teachers based on the common curriculum for the public schools of Ontario. Written in 2007 its contents arise from within the liberal arts tradition.
CONTENTS
Preface
Aims of Learning
Learning is an Art Form
The Illusion of Universalism
Individuality and Learning in Community Life
Community Life and the Common Curriculum
The Common Curriculum and Religion
[28] Ecclesial Reflections
Three Contemporary Essays
Date: 2021
Available: Amazon India & Notion Press, India.
This book discusses the reconstruction of Christian theology from an existential perspective. I present two case studies that illustrate the issues. One is "dehellenization" and the other is "Orthodox Canon Law." These case studies are deliberately poles apart to illustrate that phenomenological theological construction transcends the conditions of time and culture can assist in solving these contemporary theological problems.
CONTENTS
1. Contemporary Reflections on the Christian Faith
Introduction
The Achievements of Vatican II
Section One: Knowledge and Faith
On Theology and Science
A Particular Meaning of Tradition
On the Meaning of Dogma
On the Changeability of Dogma
On Faith
On Myth and Mystery
On Christian Philosophy
On the Basis of Belief
On Christianity and Technology
On God and Reason
Section Two: The Basic Truths
Introduction
On the Worship of God
On the Trinity
On the Holy Spirit
On Creation
On the Problem of Evil
On the Devil
On the Theology of Grace
On the Incarnation
On the Communion of Saints
Section Three: The Nature of Humanity
On the Origin of Humanity
On Evolution
On Humanity
On Life
On Personal Responsibility
On Philosophical Systems and Metaphysics
On Psychical Phenomena
Section Four: The Word of God
On the Bible
On the Sources for the Life of Christ
On Saint Paul and His Message
2. Modern Ecclesiology and the Principle of Laïcité
Introduction
A Philosophical Understanding
with an Eye to Posthumanity
Part I: The Ecclesiology of Gaudium et Spes
Part II: Ecclesial Self-conception and the Principle of Laïcité
3. A Western Posthuman Identity
A First-Person Reflection on Life
********************
BOOK REVIEWS
Alphabetically by Author
=Basinger, David & Randall
=Beckford, James
=Botham, Noel
=Bradley, Ian
=Brooks, David
=Buermeyer, Laurence
=Buber, Martin
=Burkle-Young, Francis A
=Cahill, Thomas
=Caley, David
=Chittister, Joan
=Cornwell, John
=Cozzens, Donald
=Cummings, Dorothy
=Daniel-Rops, Henri
=Davis, Claire (Henderson)
=DeSatge, John
=Dewart, Leslie
=Dwyer, Jean Marie
=Fay, Terence J.
=Fearnow, Mark
=Ferencz, Nicholas
=Gardner, Martin
=Georgiou, S.T.
=Gilreath, Shannon
=Griffith, Brian
=Herbert, David
=Jorgenson, René
~~Kaufmann, Walter/Martin Buber
~~Kelly, Anthony Bernard
~~Kersey, John
~~Kwant, Remy C.
~~Leonard, Ellen
~~Levi, Peter
~~Manning, Stephen T.
~~McLaughlin, Anne Kathleen
~~Morrocco, Mary
~~Murray, Gilbert
~~Newell, Philip
~~Nolan, Albert
~~O’Murchu, Diamuid
~~Pungente, John
~~Rops, Daniel & Sprug, Joseph
~~Sabatier, August
~~Salzman. T. A./ T.M. Kelly/ J. J. O’Keefe
~~Shelley, Christopher
~~Sinasac, Joseph
~~Skrbina, David
~~Sparks, David
~~Tanner, Norman
~~Theron, Daniel J.
~~Thornton, Martin
~~Trudinger, Paul
~~Tyrrell, George
~~Wells, David
~~Williams, Shirley
BASINGER, David, & Randall Basinger (1986) - Philosophy and Miracle: The Contemporary Debate
This book is an assessment of the opinions of philosophers in the analytical tradition. After defining what is understood by “miracle” the authors go on to ask questions about the term from historical, scientific and epistemological perspectives. The chapters are brief and open with a series of questions which are cumulative and the whole process concludes with a chapter entitled, Should Theists expect Miraculous Divine Intervention? They answer that “it would appear then that our discussion of miracles has left classical theists with a dilemma" (p. 117).
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13761037
BECKFORD, James (2005) - Religion in Prison: 'Equal Rites' in a Multi-Faith Society
The authors are sociologists with theological insight. To my mind, as a theologian, this is the strength of the book. Beckford and Gilliat present a clear understanding of multi-faith and multicultural as terms which define their area of investigation within the context of the United Kingdom. But their inquiry is very useful to prison chaplaincy services outside the U.K. as well as to government ministries of health and social services. To my mind, it is significant that the authors discuss religious activity in terms of "religious and pastoral care" throughout the book except in Chapter 7, Prison Chaplaincy in the United States, where they discuss "religious and spiritual care." The introduction of a "spiritual" notion seems to be a North American phenomenon. Within an historical perspective the authors remind us of the unique Christian contribution to role of chaplaincy in a prison setting. They suggest, however, that future models of governance will need to take into account an increasingly multi-faith and multicultural context in setting terms of reference for religious and spiritual care in prisons. I would make the same argument for all government regulated health facilities. Their last chapter, Conclusion: State, Church and Diversity, they make the interesting observation that non-Christian religious leaders appreciate the efforts made by the established Church of England on their behalf. They write that "the evidence from our study shows that leading representatives of some faith traditions would like the opportunity to speak for themselves and to be heard in the corridors of power without wishing to appear ungrateful for all offers of Anglican support or mediation. For the same reason it may be true that members of other faith communities prefer to live in a country where at least one religious organisation is established in law, even if it does not represent their particular faith, rather than to be citizens of a secular state" (p. 218). In a loosely parallel context Bradley, in his book, "God Save the Queen: The Spiritual Dimensions of the Monarchy", has noted a similar attitude. "It is interesting that just as some of the most enthusiastic proponents of church establishment are to be found among the non-Christian faith communities...so the supreme governorship has found some of its most fervent defenders among non-Anglicans..." (Bradley, Ian. 2002:177).
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1040209785
BOTHAM, Noel (2002) - Margaret: The Last Real Princess
I hesitated in deciding to review this book. Is it worth drawing the public's attention to a book that is, at best, descriptive journalism which promises more than it delivers? Only after reading the book did I acquaint myself with the author's journalistic reputation which helped explain some of my original disappointment with the book. As an academic, I cannot recommend this book to any serious reader interested in matters concerning the Windsor family. The book lacks proper endnotes and citations. Botham rarely identifies his sources but chooses convincing descriptive labels that suggest authoritative individuals with first-hand knowledge. I am disappointed in Botham's "soap opera" treatment of a topic that is of genuine interest to many in the British Commonwealth. In short, save your money!
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/906032348
BRADLEY, Ian (2002) - God Save The Queen
Ian Bradley invites us to think about the religious basis of the monarchy. He is faithful to this theme throughout the book. He speaks of recovery of the metaphysical imagination and "the revaluing of religion in contemporary Britain" (p. xix). His approach, however, has merit for revaluing (the Christian) religion outside Britain. In the chapters entitled, "Monarchy in the Old Testament" and "Monarchy in the New Testament", he offers a thorough treatment of the relationship to kingship of covenant spirituality with its roots in the scriptures. He makes the pertinent observation that "the kingdom theme in the New Testament has proved an even more problematic and controversial subject than that of monarchy in the Old Testament" (p. 25). To his credit he does not shy away from nor gloss over the problem areas in this relationship. Observations such that the visit of the magi places "no imperative on earthly rulers to surrender their crowns" and "Jesus does not reject the people's hailing of him as a king, but he does reject their expectation of what a king does" are typical of Bradley's insightful theological interpretation. He draws on a wide array of appropriate sources, academic and popular, but always with reference to his theme of relating spirituality and the British monarchy throughout the latter's history. As a theologian, I found his discussion about the spiritual significance to the Crown of Princess Diana's life and death enlightening and encouraging. From my perspective, living in Canada, he interprets her life and the public response to her death in a way that is not yet appreciated nor understood in North America. In contrast to Western postmodern self-centredness, I think that Bradley's assessment of the current debates about the monarchy are most informative, pertinent and significant. They offer a theological contribution to the discussion about the future role of the monarchy in Britain and on the world stage. Bradley notes that "theologically informed contributions to the debate on the future of the monarchy are few and far between" (p. 180). His observation that debates about the future of the monarchy in contemporary Britain being conducted "outside the churches and the university theology departments, and in overwhelmingly secular terms" (p. 181), reminds me of the remark by a North American theologian. "The theologians have moved increasingly into the secular academy, where they cannot use a church or even the church as an automatic reference group." (Marty, M., 1980. "North America: The empirical understanding of religion and theology," in Eliade, M & Tracey, D (eds), "What is Religion? An Inquiry for Christian Theology," Concilium 136). With his book Bradley redresses the lack of theological appreciation of the monarchy to our benefit.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/787843589
BROOKS, David (2015) - The Road to Character
I was asked by a friend to read this book, and if I did not want to read the whole thing, just read the sections on vocation, sin and St Augustine, he suggested. He was interested in my assessment of Brooks’ understanding of these sections.
This review reflects my reaction, (not response), to this book. The sections he recommended reiterated what I had learned from previous studies. (Something similar often happens when I watch TV journalism news stories.) The fact is that Brooks’ treatment of the road to character did not deeply engage my attention. I found myself frequently saying, “so what's new here,” as I continued to read through the book. The casual identification of secular and religious notions gave me the impression that the author believes that one system of belief is just as good as another. This annoyed me. I felt that he was suggesting that the psychological fiction of the journalist and the metaphysical reality of the philosopher work equally effectively. To my mind, his rhetoric has become more important than the content. If there is such a thing as “secular theology” this book leans in that direction.
In the Introduction the author gives his reason for writing the book: “I wrote it, to be honest, to save my own soul” (p. xiii). Thus, those individuals seeking some spiritual satisfaction in a worldly context may find a degree of satisfaction in the book. The book is a great read for individuals who have been formed in contemporary Western culture and who cannot read critically; but, rather, read for a “feel good” experience or some sort of cultural escapism with no sense of depth. That is to say, I did not find much of enduring value in the book. Speculating on the book’s shelf life I wonder just how long the book will seem refreshing to readers. How soon will it become stale and flat as is the fate of most journalistic-style writing?
But, to answer my friend’s questions; on vocation I favour the understanding that a vocation involves a “subject to subject” relationship, not a “subject to object” relationship as Brooks appears to accept. Creation calls us to nothing, the creator does. We simply react to creation through good or ill stewardship. On sin, I agree with Brooks that the word has to be reclaimed in Western culture and modernized as we engage in our own moral struggles. On St Augustine, there is such a large body of commentary on his works, I would recommend reading Augustine first, then, consult his commentators. Finally, as Brooks closes his writing he says, “The good news of this book is that it is okay to be flawed, since everyone is” (p.268). But, in contrast to his perspective, I asked myself whether or not religion or a religious perspective is a necessary component on the road to character formation.
As Louise Anthony notes the secular life can provide rewards as great and rich as those claimed by people living a religious life. Further, transcendent experiences are possible, she notes, without transcendent beings, through a loving and open refocusing of attention toward other people. [See her Philosophers without Gods: Meditations on Atheism and the Secular Life, (p. xi).] For me, Brooks’ book was not a great read.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956764109
BUERMEYER, Laurence (1924) - The Aesthetic Experience
Buermeyer writes in the Preface "that in the account given of the way in which human nature enters art, and of its transformation in the process, some light not altogether familiar is to be found." Human nature upon entering into art begins by the disentanglement of our aesthetic interest from the practical, moral, scientific and religious concerns of life. Generally, people lack training in this task of aesthetic interest the author maintains. He approaches his task systematically beginning with the raw material of experience, i.e., instinct, followed by the role of intelligence in choosing among instincts since human intelligence has the ability to present an aesthetic quality to life. He maintains that the general principles of aesthetics must be applied to each of the arts. Hence, art is creative, not "phantasy-building." Art is discussed in reference to religion, where religion is understood as an exercise of human powers without reference to the constitution of the world or the origin and destiny of humanity. Art is not a science since a scientific law attempts to show a single principle or formula that operates under many diverse conditions. Art requires the cooperation of other motives than science alone. After completing this "rigorous read" and considering the aesthetic factors that go into the making of an artist the reader may discover something not altogether unfamiliar in his or her own experience.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2174173
BUBER, Martin (2002) - Between Man and Man
This is a book on phenomenological anthropology which aims to replace the classical philosophy of Aristotle and Aquinas in attempting to answer the newly disclosed problematic of man. Post-Aristotle and Post-Aquinas Western humanity, living in modernity, faces a crisis in life of feeling no longer “at home in the universe.” Phenomenological anthropology is a Continental philosophical approach to the question. This collection of essays reveals the development of Buber’s attitude and stance in investigating this question under various headings such as Dialogue, The Single One, and Education and Man. Classical idealism finds no place in Buber’s thinking. He considers phenomena as giving the data within which existential relationships are forged. Buber brought together these essays in connection with his book, “I and Thou,” and “with particular regards to needs of our time” (ix). It is through the relationship of man and man that the essence of humanity is grasped, and not ideally so, Buber maintains.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/935818618
BURKLE-YOUNG, Francis A. (2001) - Passing the Keys: Modern Cardinals, Conclaves and the Election of the Next Pope
This book is written in a readable style which is probably due to the author's skills as a journalist. To my mind, the effort Burkle-Young makes at writing this narrative produces a product typical of the information age. This is a weakness as well as a strength depending on the reader's interest level and intent. The book seemed to supply more information than I knew what to do with. I found myself asking, "so what?" on more than one occasion and losing interest in the subject matter under discussion. The book probably would provide an entertaining read for the theologian but it does not seem to afford much theological insight. To my mind, the book has its place in the public forum of religious information. I have not placed this book on any bibliographies of theological courses I teach. Burkle-Young is correct when he writes in the Foreword that his book "...is a narrative with a historical perspective, and should not be regarded as an academic work..."
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48917608
CAHILL, Thomas (1995) - How the Irish Saved Civilization
Although intended by the author as a history, I intentionally read this book as a philosopher. From an historical point of view, much of the content that Cahill presents was known to me already through courses in philosophy/theology in my seminary years. Of philosophical interest to me in Cahill’s writing however, albeit as speculation at this point, is the acknowledgement of the waning of classical philosophy, (philosophy that the Irish saved), and the ascendancy of a phenomenological philosophical approach to life that is waxing, (but without Irish assistance?). Cahill hints at the possibility of such a transition when he writes, “The Greek approach to thought was now almost completely lost. Baptism, though it had connected the Irish to a larger world, had hardly made them Athenians, … The intellectual disciplines of distinction, definition, and dialectic that had once been the glory of men like Augustine were unobtainable by readers of the Dark Ages, whose apprehension of the world was simple and immediate, framed by myth and magic. A man no longer subordinated one thought to another with mathematical precision; instead, he apprehended similarities and balances, types and paradigms parallels and symbols. It was a world not of thoughts, but of images” that he experienced (p. 203). With the Irish, and others, no longer thinking as Athenians (classical Greeks) the way is open to think in a new philosophical manner. Cahill sees hope in future development in technology, medicine, communications and economics, but not in a contemporary approach to philosophy, it seems. Yet, it must be a philosophy appropriate to our age that lays the foundation for Malraux’s spiritual observation, (as noted by Cahill), to take root. I wonder if, having saved civilization, as custodians of the classical past will the Irish undertake a new role as architects for a phenomenological philosophical future.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890606874
CALEY, David (2005) - The Rivers North of the Future
I was given this book to read by a postgraduate student-friend whom I had taught. He inscribed it, “an excellent volume, enjoy!” The book had remained on my bookshelf for three years before I got around to reading it. Interestingly, in the early 1970’s during my undergraduate years at the University of Toronto I had been exposed to the religious and sociological views of Illich, (either through courses by Gregory Baum or Leslie Dewart, I actually forget which), and found his views to be of peripheral significance. Today, however, I find that his perspective has informative value and is worth considering from an academic and philosophical point of view.
Cayley obviously thinks so, as well. Cayley wants to get at the bottom of Illich’s view that the corruption of the best is the worst and selects Illich’s religious writings to test this thesis. Religious institutions that regulate Revelation are an evil in Illich’s view. That such regulation, when it impedes personal choice, is an evil that slowly grows in human consciousness. According to Illich we choose our relationships with others and any institution that impedes our ability to choose is corrupt to some degree.
Cayley gives us 44 pages of Illich’s background by which he accounts for Illich’s understanding of the deformation of faith. Illich became perplexed in his theological studies by the notion of Revelation as it was theologically understood in a fallen world which was governed through various processes of institutionalization. Also, Illich was not a supporter of Vatican II and he believed the priestly office should be kept separate from civil politics.
He addressed his concern via religious studies, rather than strict theology. In addressing his concern as a theologian, he would have acquired institutional authority, he maintained. He is an historian and reminds the reader frequently of his status in this book. Illich maintained that he was not a theologian, yet, in truth, he discussed historical records from a theological perspective, and not simply religious studies. (I suspect that some who have read the book missed this point.)
This book is worth reading, but I caution the reader to distinguish between the faith of an individual Christian and institutionalized Christianity. It is the latter that Illich criticizes. Yet, there is much here, when properly understood, to encourage an individual’s faith.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/314845184
CALEY, David (1997) - Expanding Prison: The Crisis in Crime and Punishment and the Search for Alternatives
Cayley doubts that prisons are instruments of correction. Like all institutions they grow to a size which frustrates their original intention. To illustrate this, he cites national (Canadian) and international examples of how prisons currently work. Cayley understands justice as peace making and incorporates into his argument insights from critical thinkers whose notions are significant to prison reform. We are social beings prior to understanding ourselves as individuals, he notes, and suggests that a moral understanding of good and evil is necessary to obtain justice. He writes (p. 85) that "In a world without good, evil is secularized as crime." and "Justice without a sense of the good is darkened." Cayley offers excellent historical insights into the relationship between prison rehabilitation and Christianity that have implications for the future direction of the treatment of prisoners. The notion of 'truth as relational' (p. 323), which he attributes to Martin Buber, reveals a phenomenological understanding of justice. This understanding contrasts with the classical ideas of Aristotle and Aquinas which currently underpin concepts of justice. Anyone interested in the alternatives available for prison reform or the religious and pastoral care in prisons will find a wealth of information in Cayley's book.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4769473836
CHITTISTER, Joan (2011) - The Monastery of the Heart: An Invitation to a Meaningful Life
This is truly a postmodern piece of literature. Postmodern themes are seen not in its content, but in its construction, that is, the printed artistic form which reflects the author's style of thinking, which is not classically expressed. The printed text, arranged in "sense lines" reminds me of the layout of the poetic passages in John's Gospel and the format of the Roman Lectionary designed to be read aloud. Chittister's intent is to answer the postmodern phenomenon of "too many choices" in life. Within classical Christendom too many choices was not the case. Then there was only one choice. The Kingdom of God was easily seen as co-extensive with the Church and all spirituality reflected that singular point of view.
It is from within that point of view that the traditional monastery was founded. The distinction and subsequent separation of the sacred and secular has changed all that. The author's thoughts about contemporary monastic community, which reflects the experience of the individual in postmodern society, are contrary to the traditional understanding. Not Christendom, the traditional concept, but Christianity, the postmodern concept, is the basis of contemporary experience for reflection and the formation of the monastery of the heart. Not the objective monastery built of bricks and stone, but the subjective monastery of the heart of flesh is the locale of a meaningful life and spiritual growth. No ideology, Christian or otherwise, is presented in this book. Ideologies are classical expressions of public understanding. Rather, a template, or frame of personal reference, is suggested as a guide to the complexities of life as the "old ways" no longer serve satisfactorily the contemporary life. With no Christian ideology to interfere, Chittister's approach is able to appeal to both believer and non-believer alike. Those seeking personal meaning in life, not in an institution, but through a movement of the soul, as it were, will appreciate her approach. A final postmodern characteristic reflected in the book is the identification of the monastery as "a new movement for a new world." In contrast to the classical monastery, a physical institution which was designed to turn the heart towards God, the postmodern monastery is "of the heart" desiring to invite God in. In this way a community of seekers gathers, with a common goal, which is the transcendental meeting with God in their daily lives, wherever they are lived out. I suggest that humanistic psychology popular not all that long ago, that characterized the human potential movement, is at the root of Chittister's efforts within Benedictine spirituality to establish the monastery of the heart.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/836643315
CHITTISTER, Joan (2010) - Uncommon Gratitude: Alleluia for All That Is
The context of this book, more than the content of this book, determines the focus of this review. That such a spiritual self-help book, proffered by well-known ecclesial spokespersons, has made an appearance in our day indicates the demise of the traditional community of the Christian faithful in the experience of many contemporary Westerners. The authors present a series of meditations on matters mostly outside the traditional understanding of the Church. They attend to their secular experience as revealing the presence of God in the "market place of spiritualities" (p. viii). To my mind their meditations are for the "unchurched" and, affirm all that is positive within human life even when experience suggests the contrary. While not a book for novices in the spiritual life, the meditations offered constitute sort of a "starting point" for the spiritually inclined but, not necessarily religious, persons seeking a deeper understanding of hope than is currently felt in contemporary Western culture. Like all meditations the thoughts presented are not ends in themselves but, rather, provide the means to an end. Admitting to a monastic mindset, the authors reflect on their experiences and recognize that such an approach and stance offers in this life the opportunity for genuine praise and gratitude, or a contemporary "alleluia for all that is" - the Church notwithstanding! From this perspective, this is book reflects the current state of much of Western spirituality and is truly a sign of the times.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/457164795
CORNWELL, John (2002) - Breaking Faith
This book reports on the contemporary state of the institutional church. It includes the author's own confessional statements which help us to understand his perspective and criticisms of the Roman Church. It is a good assessment of the Church without the sensational overtones which I have so often found in books written by journalists examining the Roman Catholic faith. Cornwell introduces the notions and issues that surfaced at the time of the so-called Modernist Crisis. He does so wisely and reveals that his personal convictions are in sympathy with the thinking of these theologians. This gives the work philosophical credibility as opposed to mere opinion. The following passage, found on pp 215/216, is typical of the observations and insight Cornwell shares with the reader throughout the book. "Pluralist, multicultural societies are a fact, and Catholics have to live in such societies by according more than mere tolerance for the convictions of their fellow citizens. After all, Catholics expect the same respect of others. Moreover, how can the world avoid destroying itself if its religionists cannot find a way of living together in harmony?...But Christian theologians rightly object that theirs is a Trinitarian God, a God that essentially expresses the truth of creation and salvation, and which is profoundly distinct from that of the God of Israel, or of Islam, or the Gods of the Hindus, or Buddhism. All the same, brave attempts have been made by Catholic theologians to find a basis for genuine respect." To my mind, in our time, a basis for such genuine respect may be found via an existential philosophy with roots in the thinking of the "modernist" theologians. I recommend this book to any serious philosopher or theologian.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50705852
COZZENS, Donald (2000) - The Changing Face of the Priesthood: A Reflection on the Priest's Crisis of Soul
Cozzens wrote: "The very face of the priesthood - the external cues and customs, the internal hallmarks of identity and function - seemed to be changing..." (P. ix). I read this book seeking these "internal hallmarks" and found them most clearly expressed in Part I. In Part I Cozzens defines his topic for reflection, that is, the human transformation necessary for a priest of Jesus Christ, and then he turns his attention to external cues and customs current in the U. S. Catholic Church. Only after reading Cozzens' book (twice) did I read the customer reviews posted elsewhere. To my mind, the reviews written by DelMonico, irisharsh, Merryman and Zee grasped the deeper significance of Cozzens' book for the spiritual life. This is, in fact, primarily a book on the deeper concept of spirituality, not a book on the sociological or psychological insights of the spiritual life. The enduring value of this book is that Part I touches on the human psyche and pneuma and effectively introduces the principle of gratia praesupponit naturam (grace builds on nature). In this context, I found it helpful to read Cozzens' book in light of James Forsyth's (1997) work, "Faith and Human Transformation: A Dialogue Between Psychology and Theology", which thoroughly elaborates Aquinas's second principle, gratia perficit naturam (grace perfects nature). Cozzens' book is about the Catholic Church in the United States which provides the sociological and psychological context for his external cues. However, to my mind, the book's fundamental concern is the appropriate understanding of spirituality of the part of the individual seeking to discern the internal hallmarks of Christian identity.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/541062456
CUMMINGS, Dorothy (2010) - Seraphic Singles: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Single Life
In Seraphic Singles, Novalis, (2010), Dorothy Cummings, offers the reader insights that emerged from her Internet blog. The sub-title, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Single Life, is what the book is truly about. Dorothy writes directly from her life's experiences, some positive, some negative but all teaching a lesson in life. She identifies situations and events that any Catholic familiar with the Catholic Church prior to the Vatican Council may say, "I can relate to that!" Dorothy almost became a nun but after "mediating between two of my very favourite nuns, and all I can say is, the grass isn't greener on the nun side of the Single fence" (p. 35). Dorothy is not your average single girl of today, however. She is theologically educated and is well aware of being raised in a Catholic Christian sub-culture from which she is emerging. She shares with the reader her life's experience in a readable and credible way that invites the reader to assess her, or his, own life. Yes, she does have insights from which men may learn and confidently says so. For those Catholics born and raised after Vatican II who read her book will realize that there is nothing truly new under the sun. Sex, rock and roll, its all been done before.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/937031709
DAVIS, [Henderson] Claire (2007) - After the Church: Divine Encounter in a Sexual Age
In one's "grappling with the meaning of life in a Western post-Christian world" [Rosemary Ruether], Claire's short work is not to be mistaken for an average self-help book. It is an example of the contemporary practice of theologizing "outside the church," as she admits. Though short, the book contains pithy, insightful comments arising out of personal experience. The book gives the impression that almost every word is weighed. The enduring value of this work, to my mind, is that Claire invites us to follow her parents' decision in our respective lives. "They stopped reading the story and stepped into the book" to find a new imaging of God. My initial reading was completed in one afternoon. However, the more enriching reading followed over the period of a few days. I had purchased the book on speculation that I might gain some insight into her father's theological understanding since I am doing research for a book on the theological similarities and differences among Charles Davis, Leslie Dewart and Gregory Baum. I read this book as a philosopher, but not presupposing any particular school, i.e., Thomistic, Cartesian, Hegelian, etc. so as not to prejudice my appreciation of her perspective. Were I to discern a philosophy underpinning her thinking, I would identify it as holistic phenomenology. Whether one's point of departure in reading the book is as a philosopher, a theologian, a social critic, or a wounded soul, there are brief personal statements throughout the book that reveal a great deal about her fidelity to revelation in relating her growth through a variety of personal experiences. I draw the conclusion that for some of us we may have to "leave the church" in order to "enter the Church" and leave the guilt behind.
WORLDCAT Link: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/231846024
De SATGE, John (1981) - Peter and the Single Church
The author classes himself as an Evangelical Anglican writing 15 years after Vatican II. He has written a balanced book evaluating the theological contribution of Vatican II to ecumenical discussions. He seeks to identify an ecclesiology that could be acceptable to any main stream Christian denomination. In short, he suggests that a Petrine ministry properly understood could permit an Anglican presence within Roman unity.
He laments theology being put on the “back burner,” as it were, in favour of historical and sociological interests. However, he asks the questions: “The institution [of the Papacy] is at once political and spiritual, but which is at its heart? Will its inmost secrets open to a theological key, or should we pick the lock with sociology?” (p. 44). In entering into discussions on disputed theological territory he advises that we should “refocus and probably redefine the matter before considering afresh our attitude towards it” (p. 60). To my mind, 50 years after Vatican II and with hindsight, I suggest that he concluded his study on a note of optimism, yet unrealized. However, he did admit that his treatment of the topic is not the final say on the matter. In reading this book I recalled the positions of earlier theological thinkers such as, George Tyrrell, Marshall McLuhan and Ivan Illich, who addressed many of the same topics.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/615295186
DEWART, Leslie (1970) - Religion, Language, and Truth
The gravest religious crisis of the Catholic Church has to do with the epistemological, metaphysical and other philosophical questions that underlie theological and religious disputes. What are merely philosophical views have often been invested with the certitude of faith and the authority of revelation, according to Dewart. Our language, philosophical and otherwise, is creative of our human selfhood rather than illustrative of the world’s objectivity, he maintains. As a result, humanity must participate more consciously and deliberately in its own self-fashioning than has been possible or necessary in the past. Within this process of self-fashioning, we may take advantage of the growth of human experience in order to improve upon our concept of God, and subsequently the understanding of religion, language and truth.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1043383320
DEWART, Leslie (1969) - The Foundations of Belief
Will Christianity undertake to direct its own evolution or continue to evolve at an obsolete rate and in a pre-conscious mode? This is the question Dewart addresses in this work. Within the order of Christian belief he investigates what has been changed by the phenomenological philosophical approach to belief and what has not yet been changed by it. He argues that the reshaping of the future is but the other side of the past. Hellenization shapes the future, whereas, dehellenization reshapes the future. It is only after we have learned to define ourselves in terms of our consciousness that we can appreciate the logic of the process by which we became conscious of ourselves, he maintains. Defining ourselves in terms of our consciousness is achieved through a process of dehellenization. The dehellenization of Christian belief does not mean the rejection of the Hellenist past. The term is not simply negative; it is not un-hellenization. In short, the task to which philosophy is called today is to set dehellenized foundations that transcend metaphysical philosophy, varieties of which can still be recognized in our contemporary belief systems.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5940
DEWART, Leslie (1963) - Christianity and Revolution: The Lesson of Cuba
This is Dewart’s first book which is actually an essay in political philosophy addressing the relationship between Church and State. According to Dewart, the lesson to be learned from a theological perspective given the relationship as experienced in pre-revolutionary Cuba is that, over time the Church may not remain spiritually relevant to the faithful as the traditional relationship between Church and State begins to end. Our political institutions, civil and ecclesiastical, make adaptations in light of our experience but at an obsolete rate of development, Dewart maintains. Whatever political order we determine for the future must be grounded in our social and historical freedom. Whether in Church or in State affairs we cannot avoid ruling ourselves except reasonably, humanely, and autonomously. We must not fall into the philosophical trap of trying to figure out a preconceived or predetermined order, such as the ancient Greek philosophers did, whether social, political, economic or personal. In this book Dewart sets out his initial reflections that will eventually form the basis of the phenomenological and existential thinking characteristic of all his writings.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823757419
DEWART, Leslie (1954) - Development of Karl Pearson's Scientific Philosophy
I followed courses from Leslie Dewart (1922-2009) during my undergraduate years at U. of T. and subsequently followed his writing career. He was a profound writer and to appreciate his critical philosophical approach requires discipline and perseverance on the part of the reader. In short, his works are not an easy read, including his thesis. Not to be under-appreciated in his thesis is the religious aspect of Pearson’s thought which Dewart developed with regard to Pearson’s scientific philosophy. Dewart writes: “It is plain to Pearson that the traditional forms of Christianity are not the full answer to man’s religious needs; at least not when the religious experience which gives the ‘visions of man’s dignity’ has been lived intensely.” This theme is evident throughout Dewart’s investigation. He concludes that the development of Pearson’s scientific philosophy arrives at a point whereby philosophy is in a position to judge science, rather than science judge philosophy. The text which I read for this review is Leslie Dewart’s PhD thesis, (University of Toronto, 1954), published by General Books, Memphis, TN. It was an electronically scanned text and does contain many annoying typos.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/697717818
DEWART, Leslie (1966) - Future of Belief: Theism in a World Come of Age
As an undergraduate in 1969 I was warned that this book was a difficult read. It was true then and it is true today. Dewart does not engage in any "pop" presentation of ideas but rather leads the reader on a rigorously exciting examination of an evolution in critical thinking. Dewart intends this book for those interested in "the problem of integrating Christian theistic belief with the everyday experience of contemporary man" (p. 7). He is concerned mainly with the problem of everyday experience as understood within the Roman Catholic perspective at the time of the Second Vatican Council. The context in which Dewart writes reveals the issues and passions of the day. This is not a limitation. Although, not intended as a book on pastoral theology I recommend that the last chapter be read as such. "The Development of Christian Theism" has insights on self-conscious development of the Christian understanding of God that should be of interest to any critically thinking pastor of our day and age. Our conception of God is challenged by secular thought which fails to appreciate the Hellenist background to much doctrine and dogma. Dewart has presented, from this reviewer's perspective, an excellent academic understanding of the problem. He is able to help one to think one's way out of that Hellenist cultural setting and remain faithful to the truth it has expressed. Not to be overlooked are the copious footnotes in the text which indicate the seriousness and depth of Dewart's thinking. They are of exceptional use in helping the contemporary individual in understanding the evolutionary characteristic of interpretive thought. Further, these notes provide a much-needed corrective to the misunderstood and misrepresented classical ideas of antiquity often encountered in popular religious books. I would not recommend the book for the average reader, nor the lazy reader. In fact, this is a painful book, not so much to read, but to put into practice. It calls the reader to a future self-confidence based on a self-conscious awareness of who we are and what we have the potential to become. Understanding Vatican II as a Christian watershed, Dewart writes: "We now stand on a very uncertain terrain. We are justified in exploring it solely for the attempt's possible heuristic value" (p. 173).
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56730403
DEWART, Leslie (1989) - Evolution and Consciousness: The Role of Speech in the Origin and Development of Human Nature
In his insightful review, Gregory Nixon states: 'Evolution and Consciousness was written before the consciousness studies boom of the 90's (which continues in this decade) but it was a mistake for it to languish so ignored. Much of the confusion of more recent writings on consciousness could have been avoided if the lessons of this book had been given a wider reading.' I agree. However, this book is more than an academic work on the contemporary understanding of consciousness. It probes into philosophical thought as far back as the Hellenists. Further, an appreciation of the profound thought in this book awaits anyone who is familiar with Leslie Dewart's earlier writings. Throughout his earlier philosophical works Dr Dewart had embarked on an intellectual process of 'dehellenization' which I suggest culminates in Evolution and Consciousness. Dehellenization is a positive process. It is not Un-hellenization, a negative process. For Leslie Dewart dehellenization is an evolutionary process within modern Western philosophy which meets satisfactorily the needs of the contemporary critical thinker. Given a good grasp of Dewart's notion of dehellenization, then, the reader will discover in this book a clear and useful presentation of the fruit of Dewart's philosophical thought for contemporary philosophy. From my perspective, however, serious Western readers, (the non-serious reader will likely abandon the book), will most likely experience a rise in their philosophical anxiety level. This is a common experience as one moves from a scholastic to phenomenological philosophical perspective. The deconstruction of one’s inherited way of thinking, as Dewart labels his dehellenization, is a threatening activity. As an invitation to philosophical growth, Dewart's dehellenization is the conscious creation of the future of belief within an evolutionary context. Linguistic skills and notions evolve within our human capacity for self-reflection. The book, in short, is an examination of evolutionary philosophical maturation within our contemporary western experience.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/470635772
DWYER, Jean Marie (2011) - The Sacred Place of Prayer: The Human Person Created in God’s Image
This work lives up to its intent to be solid food for the soul. We are encouraged to pray, not to change God's mind, but rather prepare ourselves to receive the fullness of divine life in Christ. The desert tradition of praying is presented to us from within the Dominican tradition of community life. This tradition avails itself of the contributions to prayer that scripture makes. Such as being created in the likeness and image of God which is a major fact that we must recognize in our prayer life according to Dwyer. Further, to my pleasant surprise, Dwyer begins Part I of her book with consideration of the philosopher Aristotle. It is enheartening to see philosophy return to its proper place in assisting us in our spiritual life. Aristotle guides us with the notion that everything exists with a purpose, a virtuous purpose in a divine-human relationship - and this from a pagan philosopher!
Beyond Aristotle, Dwyer moves to the treasures of the Old Testament. (However, I would have appreciated the term Hebrew Scriptures instead of Old Testament.) Now begins an inward journey according to her which ultimately leads to the outward journey that brings us to fulfillment in Christ. Christian mystical experience is addressed in chapter three through the person of Catherine of Siena. This chapter brings Part I of the book to an end with the general conclusion that human passions properly understood prepare the way for a transcendent prayer life to begin in us. Part II begins by revealing in us a process of "becoming" as the place of prayer. The Desert Fathers guide the reader here by their example of the disciplined life. Such discipline is a great asset for us even today. Then follows additional examples, traditional and modern, that point the way to finding our centre of prayer. This section also contains, at the end of each chapter, short practical suggestions to enhance growth in the spiritual life. Part III begins with a reflection on Mary and her place in the new creation. This chapter is, in fact, Christ-centred and culminates with an understanding of the human person created in God's image. That is to say, from a Christ-centered perspective, we bring God into our daily routine in which to pray is to live in a new way. Finally, the appendix is a little treasure in itself but I leave that discovery to the reader.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851698618
FAY, Terence J. (2002) - A History of Canadian Catholics: Gallicanism, Romanism, and Canadianism
Fay provides a good orientation within his subject matter for the reader and new student. Selecting from published materials he presents a chronology of the growth of the institutional Catholic presence in Canada by assessing, analyzing and interpreting of information in an ecclesiastical framework. He says that "many colleagues and students have let me know that an outline history of the Canadian Catholicism is needed now" (p. ix). The title, A History of Canadian Catholics, however, led me to expect a disclosure of some personal thoughts or motivations of the individuals who have left their mark on Canadian Catholic Church history. Rather, I discovered their views to have been presented through an ecclesiastical filter. To my mind, the book could have been entitled, An Ecclesiastical History of Catholics in Canada, since it is the corporate identity that provides the threat that links his subject matter. Fay has made choices in presenting his material and has remained faithful to his theme. He has chosen to cite individuals whose contributions or comments impinge directly on a corporate influence of the Church. His book does meet a current need in understanding Canadian Catholicism and I will recommend it accordingly.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1066930129
FEARNOW, Mark (2007) - Theatre and the Good: The Value of Collaborative Play
This book is clearly the fruit of a lifetime of contemplation. If we pay attention to what the author is actually saying, more than just his idea about the theatre is presented here. We encounter the author as person. For the attentive reader, this book performs a similar role to the theatre itself in that it serves as an antidote to living a somewhat technologically deformed life-style. It invites us, after appropriate contemplation as Fearnow points out, to strive to contribute more of our selves, or at least differing aspects of our selves, and to the community at large. Fearnow, in sharing his experience of the theatre, appeals to Martin Heidegger's philosophy. Anyone familiar with phenomenological philosophy, however, will recognize much that may be attributed to Edmund Husserl's insights which have been subsequently mediated through Heidegger.
A critique of contemporary North American technological and marketing techniques sets the stage for seeing the theatre as an alternative "tribe" in our media-dominated age. The theatrical tribe enjoys a humanitarian advantage over the one-sided, commercially-sponsored tribes prevalent in modern society. Business, Fearnow reminds us, is not a necessary part of human society. It may not even be a natural part of society. Omitting business he lists sports, work, faith, politics and civic engagement within "authentic tribalism." Here, I am reminded of Husserl's vision, and program, to revise philosophical thinking through a community of like-minded thinkers. I am led further to wonder if Fearnow would consent to add a community of philosophers to his list of authentic tribes.In reading the book, I saw Chapters 1 through 4, as setting the philosophical stage for the application of the author's experience with theatre as being more than mere entertainment. Chapters 5 through 7 are lighter reading, the rigors of philosophical thinking having been undergone earlier, and are presented with descriptive case studies and examples of theatre's therapeutic, but not necessarily clinical, collaborative play in our lives. I am among those people who, if I were to go to the theatre I would want to be entertained, as Fearnow has observed in the book. However, there is more than casual reading or the satisfying of intellectual curiosity in the book. The book is, in fact, a joy to read. This is probably due to his honesty and integrity in laboring to share ideas that matter to him and, hopefully, to others.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/238827035
FERENCZ, Nicholas (2006) - American Orthodoxy and Parish Congregationalism
Ferencz makes a very good case which many North Americans, living out their Eastern and Western Christian religious traditions, can confirm from personal experience. That is that, “something major is awry in American parish structure and theology” (p. vii). In his study of the Orthodox Churches, congregationalism within Orthodoxy is a “cause” of many of the difficulties that arise within the hierarchical governance of the church. (I am convinced that there are lessons to be learned here for the Western Church as it struggles to incorporate the principles of democracy into its contemporary structures.) He acknowledges the differences of the Canon Law traditions of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches and discusses the delicate issues of authority in the Church. He analyses three issues, the “moral absence” of hierarchical authority, the Troth schism, and lay societies as models of trusteeism, as these have contributed to disunity in the Church. A sound ecclesial theology supports his understanding which reflects the Pauline notion of the Church which must be one and whole at the same time. There is a proper role for the clergy and lay individuals in the governance within the Body of Christ and any divisiveness of roles will impede the unity for which Christ prayed. Without hesitation I recommend this book to all clergy and laity alike interested in discerning the future governance of the church.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/835101829
GARDNER, Martin (1999) - The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener
Gardner does what he says. He accounts for the "whys" of his beliefs. As he does this he presents to his readers what is familiar to their own thought evoking insight on their part. It ought to be understood, however, that he writes in broad strokes and ideas are expressed in a manner that, at times, lacks precision. By reflecting on a wide range of philosophers and artists he presents us with material we thought we understood. His efforts amount to an attempt at preserving the integrity of scholastic thinking, or a contemporary derivation of it, in the postmodern world. Gardner presents us with a North American understanding of a European approach to philosophical thinking. There is a lot of breadth to his work but, from my perspective, little depth. I finished the book with the sense that when all was said and done Gardener, as a 'philosophical scrivener', was on the outside looking in. However, I do recommend the book for Gardner's encyclopedic approach to his material. It is worth noting that Gardner views William James as a particularly insightful thinker.
WORLCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/232845111
GEORGIOU, S. T. (2010) - The Isle of Monte Cristo
This is the final book in a trilogy addressing the inner life. I am tempted to read the others. It must be borne in mind that the author is an Orthodox Christian and an educator who believes that much of life is about awakening to the interior experience and its metaphysical implications and outcomes. What he shares with his readers is certainly Christian, but he acknowledges that the interior life is common to all major religious traditions. The book is an account of one man's journey to discovering an inner treasure which he believes is hidden in all of us. The Western reader will likely find a refreshing approach in Orthodox spirituality and liturgy. There are deep lessons to be learned here by everyone especially in contrast to the more superficial new age movements that are trendy today. The reader inclined to a more academic approach to spirituality will be pleased with the copious notes the author provides. He is theologically erudite and his Christian convictions are clearly evident in his interpretation of the interior life. Western readers, being familiar with the notions of salvation and redemption as experienced through the sacraments, will find a rich alternative to the classical understanding, since Georgiou speaks of the "restorative Presence of Christ" and experiencing a "salvific zone." This book tells of a spiritual quest inspired by a secular novel, The Count of Monte Cristo, by Dumas. Georgiou was inspired by the change of heart of Count Edmund Dantes. Georgiou writes: "No longer does the inexorable avenger declare, `My will be done' but `Thy will be done.' Finally, a section entitled, "Wired to go where?" explores the relationship between spirituality and the technology that is currently being undertaken. This is not a recent discovery, Marshall McLuhan in the 1960's was aware of this relationship. The author encourages us to manage technology in moderation and wisely so as not to be impeded from discovering a rich inner treasure.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646566486
GILREATH, Shannon (2006) - Sexual Politics: The Gay Person In America Today
Gilreath has written a book that treats of a changing American perspective on politics and homosexuality. (From the point of view of clinical psychology, Christopher Shelley attempted something similar within Adlerian psychology in his Contemporary Perspectives in Psychotherapy and Homosexulaities, 1998). Throughout his book Gilreath encourages gays to work in concert and introduce positive political policies into the American context. He provides the reader with a fair assessment of the factors that have impeded progress in the legal recognition of gays in public life. Part I is historical, outlining religious and social issues as part of the mix. In Part II he reviews elements of society that have effected, and continue to effect, the introduction of laws respecting gay life in the public forum. Even though Gilreath restricts his comments to the American scene, this book makes a significant contribution to that literature available to anyone interested in learning about the phenomenon of homosexuality with the intent to overcome ignorance. Gilreath's contribution is principled and well thought-out. It presents, to my mind, an excellent point of departure for gay and straight readers alike to begin a serious non-prejudicial examination of contemporary sexual human rights.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647421998
GRIFFITH, Brian (2009) - Correcting Jesus: 2000 Years Of Changing The Story
A prolific reader of history, Griffiths presents a perspective on the Jesus story that is pregnant with significant detail – much of which is probably under-appreciated by the average person, believer and non-believer alike. (A glance at the pages of notes, the bibliography, and the index illustrates the scope of the data upon which he bases this book.) He does not write to defend any religious perspective but critiques the expression of Christianity today in contrast to the understanding of the data given in the original revelation – or at least as close to that understanding as we can get. Authenticity in religious history is not a problem reserved to Christianity but it is common to all religions. To my mind, anyone interested in religious studies, the ordained and non-ordained, and professional theologians would profit from reading the perspective offered by Griffiths. The courageous, reader open to reforming his or her inherited understanding, will find motivation in Griffith’s research. The title notwithstanding, Griffith’s book is not negative, but is a critical and positive presentation of an orthodox understanding of contemporary Christianity. (Much of the content he presents had been contained in the Catholic theological syllabus which I studied in my seminary days shortly after Vatican II.) I have no hesitation in recommending this book to those “new” to religious thinking and those well-acquainted with the Christian tradition.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/319492780
HERBERT, David (2003) - Religion and Civil Society: Rethinking Public Religion in the Contemporary World
This is a challenging book from two perspectives. It challenges our presumptions about the place of religion in the public sphere. And, it is a challenge to absorb and interpret the amount of critical information Herbert presents. The division of the book into two parts, Competing Theories and Case Studies is most helpful. The Case Studies illustrate and expand upon the arguments presented in Competing Theories. The book is coherently written and its arguments clearly stated. I found myself pausing, on more than a few occasions, and reflecting on the implications of Herbert's observations. That Herbert's perspective is "transcultural" strengthens his presentation. Further, to my mind, Herbert's rethinking calls for an "intellectual leap", on our part because, if one is persuaded by his presentation, one becomes committed to a new way of understanding relationships both public and private, individual and corporate. In short: "The picture has exceeded the frame." I would not consider this a definitive work but a serious exploratory work which sets parameters for future exploration. I read this book as a theologian and found its philosophy on the place of religion in public life amenable to the development of Christian revelation. This book will retain its academic value for religious researchers and theologians for years to come.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/424110299
JORGENSON, René (2010) - The Light Behind God: What Religion Can Learn from Near Death Experiences
I approached Jorgensen's book as a theologian, wondering how I would relate to what the subtitle of the book says: "What Religion Can Learn from Near Death Experiences." To my mind, this qualitative study has a value for those seeking information about the NDE experiences of others. It allows those not having had a NDE some insight into the phenomenon. The author wisely offers a disclaimer, "The conclusions of the research have then been made based on the level of agreement among the participants, which means that the conclusions are relating to general consensus," and he acknowledges that the sample he considers is small. But he hopes the reader will overlook any of the book's imperfections and "value the research and insights that would have otherwise not been available to you." Chapters One through Six, as I understand them, do not contain anything objectionable to doctrine or dogma to orthodox Christian thinking. However, to my mind, Chapters Seven, Eight and Nine offer some interesting challenges to an inherited Christian theology. Among these challenges is viewing sin as "false consciousness" (p. 126). This is a view that deserves more serious consideration by theologians. For theologians who do this, the traditional Catholic understanding of Purgatory may have something to contribute as Jorgensen acknowledges. Also, NDE experiences may have something to offer concerning the personal "immanence" of God, (without falling into the heresy of Pantheism), and concerning the "outward" personal experience of God as experienced in the Churches that have been established on a model of civic politics. That, "mixed with the politics of a ruthless Roman Empire it is clear from history that Jesus' Kingdom of God became one with the Kingdom of Rome" (p. 141), needs further theological investigation in our day. Finally, the notions of a "co-created experience" (p. 161), and "if we love one another, God lives in us" (p. 178), have introduced concepts that may be better probed via a phenomenological philosophy than the traditional scholastic approach at least that is my contention. Frustratingly for me as an academic, however, the book lacks formal citations for the claims it makes. But, a search on the Internet for the sources that Jorgensen mentions does reveal that they are contemporary credible researchers into the NDE phenomenon. Its limitations notwithstanding, the book presents a good starting point (or challenge) for theological reflection within the Christian tradition on near death experiences. And since theologians ought not to ignore the insights of those individuals who have had an NDE experience this book is worth the time to read it.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/895679194
KAUFMANN, Walter/Martin Buber (1970) - I and Thou
Kaufmann, rather than Buber, is the subject of this review. I have never read Buber entirely but his book was the talk among many students in philosophy during my undergraduate years at the University of Toronto. Thus, I had a sense that I had been sufficiently exposed to his ideas via these peer discussions when a friend suggested that I read Kaufmann’s translation. Thus, I limit my attention to Kaufmann’s Prologue in this edition of I and Thou.
Upon reading the Prologue it reminded me of the purpose of the first Psalm – an introduction to the rest of the Book of Psalms. In his Prologue Kaufmann emphasized certain interpretive perspectives worth noting. These perspectives are not explicit in Buber’s book as Kaufmann frequently reminds the reader. First, “Buber’s immense posthumous popularity is not confined to him” (p. 23). This phenomenon is true of many famous authors. Works of significant worth take on a life of their own, as it were, after the deaths of their authors. If the works are of true value their life is sustained by a new generation of readers as is Buber’s book. Secondly, Kaufmann has interpreted Buber religiously suggesting that an individual cannot live the Sabbath every day, but rather must live in the Sabbath every day (p. 30). In short, nothing is truly secular from this understanding. God is all and in all. Thirdly, that Buber was not that close to Christianity in his thinking as some commentators have suggested needs to be re-examined (p. 35). Claiming that there never was any truly pre-Hellenistic Christianity; that Christianity was born out of the denial of a God that could not possibly be seen; that (in John’s gospel) those who only live by Jesus’ moral teaching cannot enter the Kingdom of God (baptism is necessary); and a few other insights, Kaufmann leads the reader to challenge the notion of Buber’s closeness to Christianity. Such closeness is more academic fantasy than fact, Kaufmann suggests.
Further, Kaufmann notes that Buber’s book is not theology. In fact, “the book will survive the death of theology, for it appeals to that religiousness which finds no home in organized religion, and it speaks to those whose primary concern is not at all with religion but rather with social change” (p. 38). To survive, theology needs a personal living religion worth interpreting to its followers. As I see it, some theological interpretation may have its roots in I and Thou. To my mind, theology can be like a good book in Kaufmann’s perspective, “is not primarily an object to be put to use, or an object of experience: it is the voice of You [God] speaking to me, requiring a response” (p.39). Without prejudice to Kaufmann’s Prologue, it is the first sentence of Buber’s Afterword that may provide sufficient intrigue for me to eventually read I and Thou. He writes: “When I drafted the first sketch of this book (more than forty years ago), I felt impelled by an inner necessity” (p. 171).
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/540814301
KELLY, Anthony Bernard (1999) - The Process of the Cosmos: Philosophical Theology and Cosmology
This book is not an easy read and I found myself having to re-read certain passages so I would not get lost in its argument. Kelly presents his case well. It is presented from the point of view of Natural Theology as he clearly states. Initially, for me, the book held more promise than it delivered. I concluded, however, that my disappointment is probably due to my understanding of theology and not Kelly's arguments or academic effort. I do not contest Kelly's thesis that "Natural Theology can now provide an answer to the question as to the reason for the existence of man and the world." But does this answer suffice? Can we expect another reason should circumstances change, or should our experience not bear out "that the world can be understood as a process involving the possible self-creation of an entity like God." These questions arise from my uneasiness about the conclusion Kelly draws from his investigation. He understands Natural Theology to be distinct from revelation (p. 24). He initiates his investigation as a speculative activity but concludes it as an existential activity thus preserving a form of dualism in his thought. He writes: "When our contemporary understanding of the world is applied to the raw material of revelation, the essence [speculative term] of revelation will no doubt be maintained but the expression [existential term] of revelation may be quite different" (p. 125). One way to overcome this dualism, to my mind, is to consider a responsive interpretation in an existential theological interpretation. A responsive interpretation is a unified act which incorporates speculation and expression, either to a set of circumstances or, God's grace. In fact, need we preserve the distinction between Natural Theology (Philosophy) and Revealed Theology? In his Catholicism, (study edition), Richard McBrien (1981:113) notes: "It is not clear, for example, whether one can be both a philosopher and a theologian at the same time, or whether such a choice has to be made at all." If no such choice is made, one wonders what becomes of Kelly's concluding statement: "What will need to be considered in a future work is the extent to which this thesis is consistent with revelation" (p. 125). These remarks notwithstanding, Kelly's thesis is a challenging read worthy of the time and effort needed to do it justice.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51786145
KERSEY, John (2009) - The University Outside State Control: Writings on Independent Universities, Non-traditional Education and Related Matters
This book explores options in adult self-directed education and envisions the University of the Future as a community of like-minded learners, who are highly motivated individuals and are established leaders in their careers. Many of the articles, of which this book is composed, contain advice for the prospective student. Endorsing non-traditional education, the author explains that it is not a term designed to substitute for correspondence, or distance education programmes offered by regular universities which are campus-based. Rather, it is a philosophical approach to education. Traditional knowledge providers must change in their approach and become learning facilitators and assessors to Kersey’s mind. A weakness of many American universities is that they have become the location for a “rite of passage” experience for many students. In his critique he brings out the tensions between private and public sector understandings of market values and subsequently stresses the advantage of market values in determining educational options. Throughout the book, the various articles often compare and contrast the British and American approaches to post-secondary education. Among the topics discussed are, diploma mills, state licensing, accreditation, and responsible choosing of learning options, etc. The interview with John Kersey, as an Appendix to the book, throws additional light on the preceding articles.
Finally, a blurb promoting the book reads: Despite historic ties, universities have generally enjoyed relative freedom from state control until the coming of the post-war era. In this collection of writings, Professor John Kersey, who is [ Chancellor of the Western Orthodox University] and an established consultant with over 1,000 expert opinions on international credentials submitted for use before the US government, looks both at the mechanisms by which this freedom has been eroded and considers the theory and practice of the independent private sector university today. This unique book, the first to examine its subject in significant depth, is written accessibly to introduce the reader to a range of complex issues necessary for the understanding of the relationship between universities and the state. It makes a powerful case both for university freedom and for allied individual freedom in tertiary education through the use of distance and non-traditional educational methodologies.
WORLDCAT Link: N/A (21 October, 2019)
[cf. European University Press: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/eaupress]
KWANT, Remy (1967) - Critique: Its Nature and Function
Critique asks, according to Kwant, “is the thing what it should be?” Further, this question can be asked only when is can differ from should be. And humans are the only type of beings that can be criticised, given their responsibility for themselves and their world. Existential criticism, Kwant maintains, is the evaluation of facts in light of a norm, and these facts must be freely developed from experience and not exist because of necessity. Necessity cannot be critiqued. There is the critique of pre-scientific speech and that of scientific speech, Kwant believes. In the modern world it is through speech as scientific reason, not speech as mythology, that humanity situates itself in the world through critique. Scientific solutions to problems notwithstanding, Kwant suggests that humans ultimately remain as mysteries to themselves. In order to improve, humanity needs to critique itself in its existential situation and re-create a world suitable for all human life. He notes that, “obsolete forms of life continue to exist because an historically determined form of life is identified with the eternal, the absolute” (p. 147). Critique will liberate humanity from its confining and obsolete past as it introduces a philosophical analysis into the human situation.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/906118345
KWANT, Remy (1965) - Phenomenology of Language
The means “par excellence” to encounter others is language, according to Kwant, and a privileged way to understand this encounter is through philosophical reflection. Through a clear discussion Kwant introduces the topic to anyone interested in acquiring a deeper understanding of the function of language in the contemporary world. The footnotes contain little gems of insight which are developed in the main text. I cite some of them to give the prospective reader a sense of the book’s content: “Only when the individual surrenders his own mode of existence within the group may one speak of the group as a ‘mass’.…One who refers to the others as a ‘mass,’ places himself outside the group, makes the group an object of his stare, and reduces his fellow-men to a single homogeneous object. ● Man is a manifold searching for meaning. If reason plans the whole of life by itself, certain aspects of man may fail to receive due regard. ● Language is the principle means through which man is humanized. ● The denial of God is sometimes provoked by the way in which others affirm God. Likewise, moral principles are sometimes denied because others misuse these principles to preserve a petrified system. ● Man is not a complex of fixed characteristics but rather a mode of having characteristics -- namely, the mode of being in such a way that one always transcends what one is. ● According as we live in different circumstances and find ourselves in different fields, we assume a different attitude and speak a different language….Each perspective has its own significations, its own words, its own tone of voice. All of these together constitute a unity, just as our life is marked by unity. But the unity of our life is certainly not the unity of a rational synthesis. ● Past ages regarded the difference between Christian denominations too much in terms of homogeneous truth and falsity. Our era begins to realize that the fundamental message of Christ can be regarded in different perspectives which do not always necessarily exclude one another. ● The renewal of the liturgy must be on guard against exaggerated rationalization. The celebration of the liturgy wants to place us in the presence of the mystery “par excellence,” and this intention can certainly not be realized in a rigidly rational fashion. ● By speaking we change the empirical being into an ideal being and consequently into a general being. ● There is a form of security which is being lost and has to be lost. Many people are sacred by the dimensions which unfold themselves for their existence. This anxiety, however, is one of the phenomena accompanying the birth of a new kind of man. ● The achievements of the West…do not have to be taken over in the way they exist in the West, but may be adapted to the character of the other peoples.” The non-inclusive language notwithstanding, a convention of Kwant’s time, his book is well worth the effort to follow his presentation of the phenomenology of language as a means of encountering others.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63301303
LEONARD, Ellen (1982) - George Tyrrell and the Catholic Tradition
This book came to my attention relatively late after I had begun my research and writing into the theology and life of George Tyrrell to which I was introduced in my theological studies at St Michael’s College, University of Toronto. Leonard’s book is an excellent introduction to the so-called Modernist Movement within the Catholic Church. As well, to my mind, she has captured Tyrrell’s personality which deeply affected his theological thinking. (Regarding his theological thinking I wrote my own book on Tyrrell, “The ‘Avant-garde’ Theology of George Tyrrell: Its Philosophical Roots Changed my Theological Thinking.”) Even though “Modernism” as a phenomenon is waning in theological circles, much of our contemporary theological insight has its roots in the thinking of many “Modernists”, Catholic and Protestant, as is acknowledged by Leonard. Her style of writing is pleasant to read, with no glossing over or misinterpreting of significant and pertinent sociological, historical and theological details. To individuals interested in the development and study of theology, to divinity students, undergraduate and graduate, and to those who might just be interested in significant personalities of an earlier period of church history, I recommend this book.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/797026544
LEVI, Peter (1987) - The Frontiers of Paradise: A Study of Monks and Monasteries
Even though the publisher has classified Levi’s book as “religion/history,” Levi does not present his study in a scholastic or formal academic manner. Rather, he is a poet interpreting history. This must be understood by the reader to truly appreciate the value and attraction of Levi’s study. “What I have chosen to do is to discuss the most important historical turning-points in some detail, but to show as much as possible by examples, which have been picked for the light they shed on this or that,” he writes. He concentrates on the monks and monasteries of the West more than the East because Western records are fuller and more reliable than Eastern ones. Regardless of the culture, theology, or the historical context, all desires to found monasteries, the author maintains, is personal in that it is the desire for God and the need for silence and for study and meditation that is at the root of this desire. In voluntary isolation from the world a constant process of self-reform for the monk and of the monastery is undertaken. Neither is permitted stasis, but both must move either forwards or backwards, Levi contends. He concludes that in this study of monks no one conclusion, yet many conclusions are possible on the reader’s part.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750005838
MANNING, Stephen (2007) - Psychology, Symbolism, and the Sacred
This is one of the more significant books today available to the serious "self-help" reader. Although, anyone with knowledge of psychology, and specifically clinical psychology, will most likely gain much from the book, it remains a useful and advantageous reading experience for the non-clinician but informed reader. In short, I view this book as a call to Christian maturity in the contemporary Western world. The author is critical of the Catholic Church in light of the recent sexual scandals that have been given much publicity in the media. Manning accounts for this situation through the psychological principles expounded by Freud, Jung and James, regarding what is healthy or unhealthy in contemporary religious behaviour. In this account he is quite straight-forward. What is novel, to my mind, is his introduction of "chromatic archetypes" and his unique understanding of colour in the interpretation of myth and religion. Throughout the book, which is a difficult read at times, Manning has the reader in mind and generously supplies explanations of his use of terms and technical specialized vocabulary. During my reading of the book, I found myself re-evaluating my position on a number of occasions. I sometimes agreed with Manning wholeheartedly, sometimes partially and other times I was not sure what to think. I read the book conscious that I am on the "inside" of the Church he criticizes. But also, I am a philosopher and theologian. And it is from that point of view that Manning's presentation of philosophy disappoints me. His understanding of phenomenology, which is summed up in a brief remark on page 18, to my mind, is inadequate if not inaccurate. He describes phenomenology as a "realism-based system of philosophy." Readers of this book should be aware that "the thesis that the objects of presentation and belief are ordinarily extra-mental was formulated in opposition to idealism and was common to all of the forms of realism. But Husserl was to reject it in the later stages of his phenomenology" [Chisholm, Roderick. Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, Free Press, 1960:3]. Manning is critical of the institutional church although, in fairness, he does not disparage the sacredness of the religious life. Rather, he questions the competency of the church's hierarchy as being the primary expositors of that life, that is, as being "doctors of the soul" - at least in the contemporary Western context. In addition, the book does undertake a brief overview of symbolism that is in keeping with a Jungian understanding of non-Christian world religions. The book's value, as I see it, is in the reader's subjective appreciation of Manning's arguments and reasoning process. I would classify this book as written for and characterized by our times and as being most valuable to religious individuals troubled by a stifling experience of the institutional church. The publisher is CheckPoint Press, the author's own publishing company, whose motto is "books with something to say." Whether or not this book has any appeal or, something to say beyond the "self-help" section of contemporary book stores and airport kiosks remains to be seen.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/618786761
McLAUGHLIN, Anne Kathleen (2001) - A Place Called Morning
Anne's is a sacred story for our ordinary lives. She invites us to encounter the "truth of the story" for ourselves. "And perhaps you, if you are adept at reading between the lines, at sorting out what really happened, from what might have happened, from what I wish had happened", are words that truly reflect her character as I remember it. Having worked with Anne I can say, with some degree of certainty, that Anne is truly in the book. But whether it is the contemporary Anne or the Anne of a different time, I am not sure. This requires further discernment. If sacrament is opportunity spoken through ordinary events that bring us to a vivid awareness of God's presence then this book is sacramental. There is no feigned ceremony, ritual or "other-worldly" mystery here but ordinary things and relationships that bear sacramental grace. However, this is not a religious novel. There are no miraculous events here, no sudden conversions, nor "coming to the faith". Rather, there is just the reality of an invitation to live one's ordinary life in God's truth. Anne weaves a good tale of mystery amid mundane experience. There are surprises and revelations in this story which, upon reflection, will not be that separated from the reader's own experience. Rich in description, Anne gives us insight into the spiritual life of her characters without becoming intrusive or voyeuristic. In short, her story is a discovery of the sacred within the ordinary at a place called "Morning."
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47162050
MORROCCO, Mary (2011) - Living with the Hours
This little book is an excellent introduction to praying within the Church. Based on the Roman breviary, the booklet prayerfully leads one through the day respecting the natural cycle of morning, daytime, evening, and night time. Through these "hours" the day is sanctified and we are connected with the ancient practice of the Church in giving glory and praise to God. These hours are, in fact, a liturgy that stresses the communal character of the People of God; Catholic, Reformed and Orthodox. For anyone sensing a lack in the spiritual life or feeling unfulfilled this is an excellent antidote. The companion book is entitled, Living with the Liturgical Year.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/937816843
MURRAY, Gilbert (1950) - Stoic, Christian and Humanist
Murray makes this philosophical inquiry a pleasant and insightful experience for the reader. His clear expression and precise use of language accounts for this. He does not take up countless pages with explanation but manages to identify clearly, from the beginning of his investigation, the points at issue. This book arises out of "special reading and study" and the "by-products of a long life in which I have had almost constantly in the back of my mind, as a half-conscious preoccupation" (p. 7). This little book is an excellent resource for the average serious and somewhat philosophical thinker who desires something more than sketchy platitudes in developing a deeper understanding of the relationship among Stoic, Christian and Humanist ways of thinking. I found the book challenged the suppositions and presuppositions of my own convictions without being negatively critical in its approach. The book discusses issues of importance to mankind, Murray tells us, and he conducts his investigation of these issues with fresh philosophical insight. This is one philosophical book that clarifies more than confuses.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/941441200
NEWELL, Philip (2011) - Praying with the Earth: A Prayerbook for Peace
This non-denominational book presents a weekly programme of spiritual thinking for busy people. It is intended to afford the reader an opportunity to undertake a quest in search of the human soul as much as contemporary life allows with its distractions. The author claims that the spiritual life sought through these meditations transcends the limiting factors often found in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions. The format of the little book facilitates this process and its pages are illuminated with artwork that emphasizes the spiritual themes that emerge from these distinct spiritual traditions. To my mind the book presents an opportunity for the seeker of spirituality in a secular age to engage in an activity of spiritual development that ultimately will spill over into the world. In the author's concluding remarks, he says: "If as nations and religious traditions we were to follow the wisdom of artists, if we were to remember what they seem never to forget, then we would know the themes that underlie the human soul are deeper than the patterns that distinguish us."
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1036079625
NOLAN, Albert (2001) - Jesus Before Christianity
There are many reviews posted for this book. As far as I can see, at the moment, none acknowledges the significant philosophical change in perspective that Nolan has adopted in this book. He does not write from the classical philosophical perspective of the Western philosopher or theologian. Any philosopher of phenomenology will appreciate what Nolan says in Chapter 19 about the spirit that motivated Jesus of Nazareth and that motivates us today. Chapters 1 through 18 will be of special interest to the theologian. They are especially significant when understood from a phenomenological perspective. I dare suggest that a phenomenological understanding of Nolan's work will correct the long-standing habit of Christians noted by Nolan. "Jesus has been more frequently honoured and worshipped for what he did not mean than for what he did mean" (p.3). In short, phenomenological philosophy discloses the baggage of scholastic philosophy that has contributed to this undesirable habit. To my mind, any Thomistic, neo-classical, or Hellenist philosopher who chooses to become familiar with the phenomenological perspective and then re-read the book will encounter additional personal insights about the Christian spirit.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1100306295
O'MURCHU, Diarmuid (2000) - Religion in Exile: A Spiritual Homecoming
O'Murchu states that he seeks to befriend religious questions rather than seek answers to them and, in fact, he does just that. Not much by way of an answer is provided. He offers a critique of the underlying assumptions to religious and spiritual issues which he has identified as problematic for the individual seeking a spiritual home, or an understanding of a world in which to be "at home." His is a phenomenological approach that presents current religious and spiritual issues in the popular vocabulary of religious critique. I can identify with his critique. However, I doubt that I can agree with all of his interpretations. Agreement among academics is a perpetual problem. For theologians who read about religious issues treated by competent individuals in other disciplines agreement seems particularly problematic. Although theologically trained, O'Murchu thinks about religious issues from a perspective more properly psychological than theological. This is not necessarily an undesirable approach but a theologian needs to be cautious and not accept psychological thinking as theological thinking. As I understand him, O'Murchu speaks more of the psyche than of the pneuma. The psychological perspective of the book makes this a good "self-help" resource for those troubled or curious minds who desire more than a shallow presentation or description of spiritual or religious issues. O'Murchu says: "The need to talk things out is the pastoral context where possibilities begin to unfold"(p.198). Issues are "talked out" in the book. But as I read I found myself asking: "So what?" and "Yes, but how is change to happen?" Thus, while I have no reservation about his description about returning home, I am disappointed to find no suggested direction on "how to return home." I suggest that theologians could benefit from reading this psychological work.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44274533
PUNGENTE, John & Monty WILLIAMS (2011) - Finding God in the Dark II
Traditionalists, conservatives and classicists beware. This is not a book for you. The spiritual exercises of St Ignatius, as present here, are not intended to reinforce or confirm anything about our knowledge of God. Nor are they intended to reinforce or confirm our inherited habits of belief or knowledge of ourselves as seekers of God's presence in our lives. Rather, this book is intended for the person in contemporary Western society suffering from an inadequate and no longer satisfactory understanding of how God is to be understood in the present time. Emphasis is placed on our subjective understanding of God's gifts to us. What changes is not God, but our understanding of God's presence in our lives. In keeping with the spiritual literature of our time this book is a postmodern spiritual manual that requires time and effort on the part the seeker desiring to deepen the spiritual life. The authors move away from the traditional retreat house as a locus deepening one's spiritual life. Two reasons are given for their decision. One, the retreat house no longer attracts individuals seeking spiritual development and, two the operation of the retreat house is economically unfeasible. The location of our spiritual development today is a secondary consideration according to the authors. Where we learn a new language for our understanding of God does not need not to be reserved to a retreat house but, can happen wherever our lives happen to be lived. All one must do is reserve the time needed and explore the fictions representing our lives which we have created through the movies. The authors adopt an anthropological and philosophical approach that recognizes that the human animal must act as through fictions to be human. No other animal acts this way.
Also, the means by which we learn this new language can occur through the new vehicle of the media - something not available to St Ignatius. However, because this is a new vehicle and a somewhat untested approach to spiritual understanding there may be dangers not envisioned at this point. Watching contemporary movies, as an act of contemplative prayer runs the danger of the rhetoric becoming more important than the reason in the quest for spiritual enlightenment. Our non-classical world is constructed around four focal points according to the authors. Security, meaning, liberty, and belonging characterize the construction of our personal worlds in contrast to the world of humanity. Our personal worlds, when understood in light of contemporary philosophy, reveal a change in the relationship between God, as creator, and the person as creature. We become co-creators with God in the construction of our personal worlds. In other words, in this view, the whole acceptance of ideology as a philosophical basis is called into question, and further, is abandoned if need be. Our imagination constructs and subsequently presents to us our personal worlds. In the authors' words: "In this personal and sacred space of encounter, the energies of our lives are integrated with the divine energies of God. It is not that we are doing all the creating, or that God is doing all the creating. The creation of the world we contemplate is done by God and us working together" (p. 16).
The 'manual' form of this book follows a very rigorous, pre-ordered structure, very much in keeping with the Ignatian-inspired origins of the Jesuit order. The book itself is divided up into four parts; each called a 'week', which can be dealt with in a calendar week, perhaps less, or more. Each 'week' has a spiritually-inspired title and theme, with the requisite 'exercises' in the form of questions which the reader is encouraged to answer before beginning to watch that 'week's' movies.
The choice of box-office fare which the authors have chosen for the reader's spiritual analysis is quite impressive from the point of view of its sampling of the last decade or so of Hollywood's post-modern production of popular art work: It starts with the sci-fi thriller 'Inception' with Leonardo DiCaprio, and runs the gamut from everything from 'Magnolia' with Tom Cruise, to the 'Social Network', 'The Hurt Locker', 'Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows', 'Brokeback Mountain', 'Julie and Julia', 'Toy Story 3', 'Slumdog Millionaire', 'American Beauty', with Kevin Spacey, 'The Green Mile' with Tom Hanks, 'Billy Elliot', Jane Austen's 'Pride and Prejudice', and lastly, the animated film 'Up'.
There are just over fifty films in all to view for the whole four 'week' program of the Spiritual Exercises. Anybody who takes this lightly or who thinks that this is just pop cultural fluff is seriously mistaken. The questions which are posed after each movie are intended to give strong pause for reflection for those who are the least bit spiritually engaged on their life journey. As well, they may very well be of significant use to those less familiar with the more mainstream or conventional forms of the Roman Catholic tradition.
In light of the above remarks a more appropriate title for the book might have been, Finding Our Way out of Classical Darkness. The authors write in the Conclusion: "Through the Exercises of St Ignatius, you have gone on a journey where you have allowed yourself to be found by God" (317). The fact is, God has found you in your personally constructed, that is, subjective world view as opposed to finding you in a common human objective world view. The seeker in the spiritual life must now transcend his or her personal world by bringing the love of God into the universal world of humanity, for fear the personal world becomes a private world. (Reviewed in collaboration of Peter Stuart)WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/707818138
SABATIER, Auguste (1898) - The Vitality of Christian Dogmas and Their Power of Evolution
This short book consists of a lecture Sabatier gave in London in 1897. The subject is “the faith,” not “religion.” The lecture is not presented with any polemical intent or controversy in mind. Rather it is a truly theological work laying down a theme to which Sabatier will return in other works. Sabatier was an evangelical Protestant whose purpose in writing this book was to present church dogmas as evolving within human experience. Since human experience precedes the formulation of any dogma and since dogma follows upon experience one may conclude that dogma evolves. The classical conventional wisdom of Christian theology was that dogma is expressed in fixed philosophical formulas. The emerging modern scientific methodology challenged that inheritance, forcing the theologian to ask: must we choose between pious ignorance and bare knowledge?
I regret not having been aware of Sabatier and his influence on George Tyrrell (1861-1909) when I wrote my book on Tyrrell, The “Avant-garde” Theology of George Tyrrell: Its Philosophical Roots Changed My Theological Thinking. In that book I contend that theological problems are, at root, philosophical problems and a contemporary philosophy, appropriate to a scientific and digital culture, is required to support contemporary theology. Ellen Leonard in, George Tyrrell and the Catholic Tradition, suggests Sabatier had an influence on Tyrrell’s theological thought. I agree. To my mind, then, Sabatier’s work has much to commend itself to contemporary Catholic theological thought without getting caught up in the politics of religion.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/810593233
SABATIER, Auguste (1899) - Religions of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit
Sabatier examines the methods of explanation for a theology of authority and a theology of experience. In this book, unlike his Outlines of a Philosophy of Religion, he does cite other authorities in making his case. The notes in the Appendix amount to an annotated bibliography that serves the theologian very well. To my mind, this book is best read after one has become familiar with his other two books in which he addresses the same intellectual problem. He writes: “The question that occupies us, let us again repeat, is neither concrete religion nor established science, but the intellectual effort which creates science and the profound sentiment which gives birth to religion, independently of their more or less striking manifestations in everyday life” (p. 343).
Sabatier maintains that Christian consciousness is discovered through a history of the religious evolution of humanity. Whereas, Christian doctrine is best understood through three stages of experience, one developing from the other. Ultimately, progress through these stages leads to an eternal union of the soul with God. To reconcile these two methodologies that explain consciousness and doctrine is the existential task of the pious Christian. The study and explanation of the Christian experience may be understood through an historical and psychological system of education which consists of three parts. First, the religion of nature, or the elementary consciousness of God, and the metaphysical opposition between God and man. Second, the religion of law, or the moral cognizance of God, and the moral opposition between God and man. Third, the religion of love, or the Christian cognizance of God, affording salvation by redeeming love. For my part, this book is a theological approach that every serious Christian theologian ought to consider.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/314724047
SABATIER, Auguste (1897) - Outlines of a Philosophy of Religion Based on Psychology and History
This book is about religious philosophy, as the title indicates, but it is not reserved to the Christian religion. It arises out of the author’s concern for young people and how they will need to struggle with the relationship between religion and the new discipline of science. He writes, “Our young people, it seems to me, are pushing bravely forward, marching between two high walls: on the one side modern science with its rigorous methods which it no longer possible to ignore or to avoid; on the other, the dogmas and customs of the religious institutions in which they were reared, and to which they would, but cannot, sincerely return” (xiv).
He sets out to answer the question what is the essence, or principle, of Christianity and he rejects all denominational polemics claiming “all we need is a little history and psychology” (p. 137). Sabatier’s engaging approach to philosophy became evident to me when he describes religion as the beginning of the childish form of science, which ultimately will give way to higher and more rigorous forms. Within these two perspectives of history and psychology, the attitude of Jesus, which we must adopt, plays a very important part in Sabatier’s theology. Jesus’ actions placed him at the centre of human consciousness to delve down to the source of life accessible to everyone.
The volume I read was published by George H. Doran Limited and is composed of three books: Book 1 on Religion, Book 2 on Christianity and Book 3 on Dogma. Part of Book 3 appeared as an independent lecture entitled, The Vitality of Christian Dogmas and Their Power of Evolution: A Study in Religious Philosophy (1898) which I also reviewed. While reading Sabatier I had a sense of an authentic engagement with the mind of the author. He was not simply rehearsing ideas reflective of discussions on the philosophy of religion. Thus, I was not surprised to read in the Appendix, “In this book I have hardly noted any but facts that have been verified in myself and by myself…. Those who are able and wishful to re-read my book in themselves, and thus verify my analysis, may perhaps draw some benefit from it” (p. 348). To my mind, the title of the book notwithstanding, Sabatier does not merely write about theology, he theologizes.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/752817104
SALZMAN, T. A./ T.M. Kelly/J.J. O'Keefe (2004) - Marriage in the Catholic Tradition: Scripture, Tradition and Experience
This is more of an assessment than a review. I say that because I comment more on the structure and purpose of the book than its content. I began reading the book only to realize that all that was necessary for me was to have read the introduction which gave a detailed thumb nail sketch of the content of the book in its major sections. What became clear to me that this was a popular presentation of a university syllabus on the Catholic theology of marriage. Indeed, there is an appendix in the book which offers a course based on the essays presented. There is a wealth of Catholic information for students, discussion groups and the general reader in this book. However, as I progressed through the book, I detected something was missing. Written in 2004, there was no mention of contemporary marriage issues, i.e., same sex marriage. And all the essays were written from a theological or pastoral perspective. No essay addressed marriage from the point of view of Canon Law. An examination of the list of contributors shows that ten of the twenty-four authors are associated with Creighton University, a Catholic University in Nebraska. This may account for the book’s academic flavour. The authors are not speculating about the future of marriage in the Catholic Church but looking to give an exposé of the development and current understanding of marriage up to its recent past. Hence, a course outline in the appendix ends: “The History of Marriage as a History of Change: Future Directions? Possible Topics: same-sex unions and church teachings; civil law and ecclesial law: separate but equal.” I was pleased to read “ecclesial,” law, not “ecclesiastical,” law. To my mind this indicates a change towards a philosophy/theology which is more in keeping with the contemporary context and this affords an opportunity for further development of the Catholic theology of marriage.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56614210
SHELLY, Christopher (1998) - Contemporary Perspectives on Psychotherapy and Homosexualities
Shelley is the editor of this collection of essays. The Introduction to the collection and the essay that is his contribution forms the basis of this review. Shelley is an Adlerian psychoanalyst who proposes a fresh methodological approach to understanding the homosexual person. He suggests that an individual is not characterized by one understanding of homosexuality but rather is understood through a varieties of homosexualities. He recommends an abandonment of the traditional definition of homosexuality which seems to be an impediment to understanding the homosexual person in his or her environment. This would allow for the individuated and special needs of homosexual persons to be recognized by therapists in their professional approaches. He takes a stand against "reparative practices" by therapists and against those social institutions which perpetuate unhealthy pressures on homosexual individuals by accepting the uncriticized social perspective as the norm. In an insightful comment he criticizes affirmative therapy as a reaction to the illness model of homosexuality and proposes that a thought-out response to the person-in-community replace it. To Shelley's way of thinking affirmative therapy as understood by many practitioners is not in keeping with proposed developments in Adlerian psychology. The seven articles selected represent a number of points of view and are intended to allow the reader to make dialectical comparisons and stimulate debate, he says (p. 8). Given my limited understanding of Adlerian psychology, and then only from a theological perspective, Shelley's suggested re-interpretation of Adler's thought concerning the homosexual person appears convincing. As I see it, his overall argument strives towards understanding the person in a natural order with the intent of constructing a healthy psyche.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/489184072
SINASAC, Joseph (2011) - John Paul II
John Paul II is on the road to sainthood and this brief, but succinct, booklet reveals how this man received and had the courage to live the faith he professed. Anyone struggling to make sense out of their secularly dominated lives and seeking to overcome what seem insurmountable obstacles will find the late Pope's life an inspiration. As the author notes, John-Paul espoused an inclusive theology, and encouraged the youth of all nations to think in this way. In discussions with Native Canadians, he insisted that First Nations were "full-fledged members of the Church, although not of society." He was quick to forgive his would-be assassin. Both are examples of his faith-filled life.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/738402164
SKRBINA, David (2005) Panpsychism in the West
Skrbina writes a book about theories, not a theory, he claims (p. 2). He restricts his discussion to the notion of "mind" as it has been understood from various perspectives in living and non-living things in this philosophical history. Panpsychism, as a philosophical theory, links beings and mind in a way no other system does, he maintains. However, due to the data and context in which he philosophizes he is confined to discussing his position from within a Hellenized philosophical perspective. His work is a western philosophical treatise and this is reflected in the title, in the West. Perhaps, at a later date, a book might appear entitled, Panpsychism in Philosophy. With that as a possibility, I view, Skrbina's work as a preamble to a discussion on "mind" within a de-Hellenized, that is, Western conception of epistemology uninfluenced by Greek notions. I view Skrbina's perspective on Panpsychism, as part of an evolutionary process leading to a possible de-Hellenized understanding of mind. Whether or not such de-Hellenization is his intent is conjecture on my part. However, he hopes to introduce us to a broader concept of mind that may arise from considering "the evolution of panpsychist thought from the time of the pre-Socratics through the present" (p. 22). He does this successfully within the Hellenist heritage. As a sub-stratum to theology, my own discipline, Skrbina's critical philosophical history provides theologians with the incentive to re-visit the philosophical underpinnings of western theology although this is not his intent (p. 2). Even though Panpsychism in the West, as a theory about theories, does not attempt a philosophical de-Hellenization it does offer to theologians a sub-stratum from which to re-conceive the person as sharing in mind-like qualities with the rest of its environment. From my perspective, the broader concept of mind Skrbina seeks may be found in a de-Hellenized worldview.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004378065
SPARKS, David (2002) - Prayers to Share Year B: Responsive Prayers for Each Sunday of the Year
These are truly wholesome and appropriate "responsive" prayers that engage those who pray. This liturgical aid does not aim to persuade, convince, or instruct but rather presupposes a degree of faith commitment on the part of the congregation. These prayers help to name and give voice to the congregation's pre-existing convictions arising out of the Christian experience. The prayers, composed with an eye to the contemporary religious climate, are truly "about us" and our beliefs as a worshipping body of Christ's faithful. Sparks has included a thematic index along with the Hebrew and New Testament indexes. This makes for easy reference to the Church's year and its biblically-centred liturgical life. His "Confession Prayers" remind me of the options for an "examination of conscience" that appear in the various penitential services in my own R.C. tradition. Sparks writes concerning his Confession Prayers: "I have tended not to use the traditional 'miserable offender' approach but to offer affirmations, reminders, encouragement, and questions instead." To my mind, this is handy liturgical resource that will bear fruit in a parish, congregation, and civil institution where worship services are conducted.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56108078
SPRUG, Joseph (1959-64) - Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism
Many of the articles in this encyclopedia are the result of the change in direction in Catholic theological thinking that occurred as a result of Vatican Council II (1962-1965). For the most part these volumes reflect a transition period in the minds of their authors and in the daily experience of the Church. The value in consulting this series today is that we may be able to discern, through comparison to our present situation, where the theologians have succeeded and where they have failed in advancing theological understanding. Each of the contributors has had a career which was lived out in the Catholic Church as it moved from a “pre-conciliar” to a “conciliar” theology. As with any interim literature some contributions were written on the eve of the Council and some after, thus they do not all necessarily reflect the direction in which the Council was headed. The Encyclopedia is an English translation of articles that were written in the authors’ first language, that is, French, Italian or German. For the theologian, scholar, historian, sociologist, or philosopher, the series is an excellent point of departure to investigate the inauguration of the theological mind of Vatican II. To promote interest in the topics of the encyclopedia, I have written a handbook, as I call it, based on the Encyclopedia which identifies at least one important theological perspective from each volume, (Vatican II: Theology in a Secular World – Exploratory Essays in Catholicity 1956-1967).
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/476173330
TANNER, Norman (2011) - New Short History of the Catholic Church
This book is a most interesting presentation of Catholic Church history. In fact it is a history of Catholicity, and not merely one of the institutional presence of the Church in the lives of believers. Tanner leads the reader through the complex stages of historical development of the presence of God beginning with the Apostolic Age through to the Twenty-first Century. Much ground is presented within the book and the interpretation made of the historical significance of the events is fair and balanced. It is refreshing to see the emphasis placed on the lives and biographies of the people concerned with significant historical events in a Church that has become a world religion whose beginnings were a little more than a sect within Judaism. The author warns the reader of the dangers of oversimplification of historical data and has made an honest, and successful, effort in avoiding this pitfall by providing sufficient detail without boggling the mind of the contemporary reader. The section on Vatican II concludes optimistically with the suggestion that the final chapter of Catholic history is yet to be written. The stage on which Trent and Vatican I undertook their work differs greatly from the stage on which Vatican II was presented to the world. The ubiquitous presence of the media on the world's stage will influence how the Good News is presented and remembered by future generations. While recognizing the opportunity for positive developments, Tanner warns, "Subtly, too, there is danger that the church will concentrate too much on its public presentation, on the more obvious and easily grasped dimensions of the Christian message, and so come to minimize or forget the wonder and depth of this mystery" (p. 236). I have no hesitation in recommending this book to anyone interested in Church history.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1026778378
THERON, Daniel J. (2006) - The Apostle Paul: His Gospel Before the Gospels
True to his evangelical roots, Theron tries to avoid creedal and dogmatic controversies in his interpretation of St Paul. Given the many translations of St Paul’s writings available to the scholar, he writes, “I have made my own translations, trying to steer clear of creedal and dogmatic interpretations” (p. x). He aims to test the traditional views about the Pauline corpus that have become fossilized, stale and taken for granted. The author discusses Paul’s Christomysticism and such mysticism is often dormant in any religious person, the author maintains. “Its [Christomysticism's] seed was most likely sown in the likelihood that he had witnessed the crucifixion in person. It had been germinating in him and took charge of him in the fundamental transformation of his Damascus Road experience” (p. 281). In his study of St. Paul, gospel, apostleship, mystery and truth are concepts that Theron revisits and presents to contemporary secular society for its re-creation and restoration. As a Catholic, I found this a refreshing read on a subject that has been thoroughly researched by a committed Christian.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70637245
THORNTON, Martin (1974) - My God: Reappraisal of Normal Religious Experience
This is a truly "personal" book. Thornton tells us: "I have collaborated with nobody and discussed it with nobody. Nobody has even read the proofs and offered valuable suggestions" (p. 9). In this, his eleventh book, he shares the personal fruits of an ordered religious life. This is not a book on apologetics, doctrine or dogma. It is "faith speaking to faith". To my mind, the greatest contribution in the book is Thornton's suggestion on how to overcome the fear that the Church seems to have about ordinary religious experience. This book, with its roots deep in personal, not private, religious experience, is a valuable aid in understanding contemporary religious life. Professional theologians will gain insight from Thornton's existential distinctions in understanding the presence of God and pastors will appreciate his practical introduction to a "panentheistic" pastoral theology which moves away from an "intrusive" speculative or substantive theology. Readers of Thornton's earlier works will recognize how they have influenced the understanding of the experiences shared with the reader in this work.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/718230754
THORNTON, Martin (1988) - Christian Proficiency
Like his 'English Spirituality', this book, 'Christian Proficiency' is written for the English context but is capable of speaking to Christians everywhere. Thornton acknowledges that certain literary accommodations have been made for North American readers in the Morehouse-Gorham edition (1959). These accommodations do not alter the book's premises and this review is based on that edition. Thornton reverses the perspective of his writing in this book compared to his approach in 'Pastoral Theology: A Reorientation' (1958). 'Christian Proficiency' is addressed to the faithful laity, not to clergy and theological students. Thornton warns of a lay tendency to over-rate devotion in the Christian life which takes on the character of a particular age and culture. What is needed currently is a pastoral theology not a devotional theology. In typical English fashion, he writes: "My assumption is that the faithful, the serious but perfectly 'ordinary' Christian to whom I write, does not want to be particularly 'pious' or 'devout' or even vaguely 'good': he wants to be efficient." This is truly a pastoral (practical) book for developing the spirituality of a Christian life. It is a prayer book, not a book on praying. Engaging and digesting the content of this book illustrates how secular and pseudo-prayerful our present Christian thinking has become. The book contains a valuable theological glossary which lists 200 entries succinctly and clearly.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/831847218
THORNTON, Martin (1986) - English Spirituality: An Outline of Ascetical Theology According to the English Pastoral Tradition
This book is written out of the English experience and for that reason should be read by American theologians and clergy. Thornton lives up to his promise and presents a practical pastoral approach to matters spiritual without an inordinate emphasis on the influence of psychology as is often present in American publications about spirituality and pastoral practice. Martin is honest and says that his book "contains nothing very new, but I think it contains a good deal that is old enough to have been forgotten..." (P. xiii). His claim arises after years of personal experience. This is important because he notes that the science-religion relationship, that developed in favour of the dominance of science, seems to be reversing. He writes that " theology looks like becoming the only frame of reference into which current questions can be fitted" (p. 7). He fits spiritual questions into a framework of an English School of spirituality within the diversity of Catholic Christianity. To address the spiritual needs of the twentieth century he pays attention to the biblical roots and early theological interpreters, especially the English, of the Christian experience. It is a great help to the reader that Thornton explains how and why his interpretations depart from other authors who have written in this field. Written, not as an academic text, but as a resource for the contemporary spiritual director, the book fulfils its purpose admirably. Finally, this is the same author who, in 'Prayer: A New Encounter' (1972), criticized and altered his original perspective from an academic theologian to embrace a pastoral-theological stance. His reasons for this are well worth knowing.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/781542996
TRUDINGER, Paul (1988) - Leaves from the Note Book of an Unashamed Heretic
To my mind Trudinger could have entitled this collection of essays, Dehellenized Leaves from the Notebook of an Unashamed Heretic. This small book begins with the author introducing himself and giving his reasons for writing it. In examining the Creed, he arrives at conclusions that are very far removed from his youth. He recalls, “I was brought up in a very conservative Christian tradition. My parents were what are sometimes labelled ‘fundamentalists.’ They were good warm–hearted, compassionate folk. I found a great deal of vitality, of living faith in that tradition…. I am grateful for that experience; grateful to my parents, teachers and pastors who guided me in my youth” (p.1). The book is a personal testimony to others who may have, or had, similar doubts and/or convictions. His conclusions are often so unconventional and not in accord with tradition, i.e., the expression of the faith in Hellenistic philosophical categories, that he reminds his readers that he is a member of the Church, a Quaker, writing from within a community of faith. After his commentary on the articles of the Creed he offers some observations about the social and ethical life of persons of faith. A lecture given at McMaster University in 1986 is appended to the book. In a statement, typical of his approach to theological matters, Trudinger says, “If I were pressed to say in one short statement how I would describe the shift in my thinking and convictions, I would say it was a movement away from a strong ‘Christocentric’ focus to the conviction that ‘God’ must always be at the centre” (p. 60). This is a challenging little book and I recommend it to anyone who seeks to deepen the understanding of his or her faith in the light of contemporary experience.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20875559
TYRRELL, George (1981) - Letters from a Modernist: The Letters of George Tyrrell to Wilfrid Ward, 1893-1908
To Tyrrell's letters Weaver has written annotations which are exceptionally detailed and prove, to my way of thinking, to be the most valuable part of this book for the historian and anyone interested in specifics of the relationship between Tyrrell and Ward. In her introduction she says that the demise of the relationship between Tyrrell and Ward "helps us to understand more clearly why late nineteenth century Catholic intellectuals were drawn to one another and to a common dream of a more expansive church" (p. xiii). Her presentation acknowledges Newman's role in the Modernist controversy as reflected through Tyrrell's correspondence. This book is an enlightening chronicle, albeit a one-sided chronicle, since Ward's letters are no longer extant. However, while I was left informed by Tyrrell's letters as presented by Weaver I was not as passionately moved by this book as I have been by other books on Tyrrell. Nevertheless, Weaver allows Tyrrell's letters to speak for themselves without any annoying overlay of opinionated interpretation. That consideration on her part is a joy in itself. Given all the material available on Tyrrell and Modernism this book is not a "must read", yet, one is poorer in choosing not to read it.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1100157730
WELLS, David (1984) - Prophetic Theology of George Tyrrell
Wells says: "I have tried to develop an understanding of the theology of George Tyrrell that is historically sensitive but re-evaluated from a post-Vatican II position " (P.4). If I have understood Wells correctly, the post-Vatican II position from which he evaluates Tyrrell is an existential one. In this exciting presentation of Tyrrell's thought Wells has succeeded in identifying the prophetic aspect of Tyrrell's character. Many scholastic investigations of the writings of significant theologians are undertaken from the perspective of the historical context or crisis that precipitated their works. Wells has managed to present an investigation that illustrates Tyrrell's historical significance and reveals his prophetic character which transcends the historical context. Wells writes: "...it needs to be said at the outset that my concern centers wholly on Tyrrell; where questions of relationship between his thought and contemporary views arise, my sole intention remains that of eliciting the proper significance of the Irish priest's ideas" (P. 5). As an existentialist, Tyrrell wrote with the intention of finding himself and the journey of this volatile personality parallels the journeys of many of Christ's faithful today. In our age of heightened individuality, which often turns to narcissistic individualism, Tyrrell's journey into self-conscious understanding of himself and the Church, which he claims to have never left, is accurately documented by Wells. Tyrrell's individuality is that of the theologian. It is not the individualism of the philosopher. Wells is faithful to the title of his book and helps us to understand that "What is of concern is that Tyrrell's role as an almost prescient formulator of things to come be recognized" (P. 42). This is not a book which is written to address, in popular fashion, the existential angst among Christian believers today. Rather, it is a thoughtful and richly rewarding intellectual appreciation of the prophetic legacy of one who suffered through the formulation and re-formulation of his ideas for the good of the individual and of the Church. Wells, in re-evaluating Tyrrell from a post-Vatican II perspective, shows how Tyrrell's thought transcends the Victorian theological constraints of his time.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/833520066
WILLIAMS, Shirley (2003) - God and Caesar: Personal Reflections on Politics and Religion
I chose to read this book on the basis of its subtitle: "Personal Reflections on Politics and Religion" expecting a personal account. Rather, a practical account was offered such that, to my mind, the subtitle could be more accurately expressed "Practical Reflections on Politics and Religion." The book is based on a lecture series and as a result is not a difficult book to read. Williams, by her own admission, is not a theologian, nor scholar but a politician. She claims the "authority of experience" for the right to make comments on the relationship between religion and politics. She embraces, and is embraced by, a political and an historical aspect of the institutional church, not its founder. "It seemed to me that, if I was to be a Christian, I should embrace Christianity in its strongest form. It was the huge claims and the huge demands made that drew me to the Church of Rome" (p. 6). In her embrace, I believe, she differs from the politician W E Gladstone who believed that politicians ought to be inspired and motivated by religious convictions. She does support the institutional Church, "warts and all" in addressing the social and global ills of our day. But her support appears to lack Gladstone's personal evangelical commitment to political activity. Her support of the Roman Church, however, does not exempt the Church from undertaking a critical self-reflection. I was not disappointed after reading the book for there are many significant insights clearly and appropriately expressed. Her highly practical insights helped me to become better informed about the relationship between church and state in a contemporary context. However, I remain no better informed about her personal understanding or personal commitment which for me was the initial attraction of the book's subtitle.
WORLDCAT Link: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55587612
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